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Ancient Greece

The Golden Age

The civilization of ancient Greece, a group of warring city-states dominated by Athens and Sparta, reached its peak during the fifth and fourth centuries B.C., when great advancements were made in trade and industry, architecture, politics, arts, language and philosophy. By that time, the age of the tyrants (like Phalaris, famous for ordering the creation of the sadistic execution device known as the brazen bull, then forcing the bull's creator to become its first victim) was over, and Athens had become a democracy. Due to its early superiority in military strategy and weaponry, as well as its extremely rich culture, ancient Greece's influence stretched all the way along the northern edge of the Mediterranean, from Asia Minor to the Italian peninsula.

Day in the Life

Ancient Greece during its golden age was a very stratified, male-dominated society: Only males were considered citizens, and only upper-class men were given the chance to obtain an education. The majority of Greeks made their living from farming, and grapes, olives and wheat were some of their most important crops. Fully one-quarter of the Greek population were slaves, who fueled the growing economy with their labor in shipyards, quarries, mines and as domestic servants. Though poor men could attain positions of power in the new Athenian democracy, aristocrats still enjoyed a level of comfort unknown to the rest of the population.

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Ancient Rome

The Center of the World

In the heyday of the Roman Empire, the city of Rome itself was the beating heart of a powerful and vibrant society. Its empire at one time encompassed England, most of continental Europe, a good part of Asia, northern Africa and the Mediterranean islands. If the Greeks excelled at intellectual and artistic pursuits, the Romans were known for their sophisticated military, political and social institutions. Aside from the mighty Senate, one of the most potent symbols of ancient Roman society was the gladiator. Gladiatorial contests began in Rome in 264 B.C., and by the following century that had grown into a mass industry. In fact, the famous Coliseum could hold some 50,000 spectators. Men who became gladiators were mostly prisoners of war, condemned criminals or slaves. In addition to a public spectacle, violence was seen as a legitimate and necessary part of the Roman justice system. Some of the devices and methods of punishment that arose from ancient Rome were the flogging whip, the rack, burning alive and the breaking wheel.

Day in the Life

Like ancient Greece, Rome was a patriarchal and highly stratified society, in which the decadent, luxurious lifestyle of emperors and aristocrats provided a stark contrast to the poverty and degradation of the slave population. Women had little formal power, and were governed by strict rules of conduct. Talking politics was one of the main interests of the Roman citizenry, as widespread as interest in gladiatorial contests and other sports.

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Middle Ages

Fall of the Empire, Rise of the Church

With the collapse of the Roman Empire in the fifth century A.D. came the beginning of a long period now known as the Middle Ages. Over the next seven centuries, until the beginning of the Renaissance, the European continent was intended to function as one Christian state, with the Catholic Church playing the central role in governing the lives of its people. In 1231, Pope Gregory IX officially formalized the mission of the Holy Office, or Inquisition, to deal with heretics against the church, as well as moral crimes. Though it eased up in Europe after the 14th century, the Inquisition was kept alive for a period in Spain, where it targeted Jews and Muslims who had converted to Catholicism after a royal mandate in 1492. Some of the interrogation devices traced to the inquisitors include the heretic's fork, the Judas cradle and the headcrusher. For many, the dawn of the Renaissance around the 13th to 15th centuries showed the failure of the church to provide a satisfactory framework for all of Europe's diverse citizens, and monarchies, nation-states and national languages were gaining ground. The term Middle Ages was coined by Renaissance scholars, who saw themselves as rediscovering and reviving the humanist values of ancient Greece and Rome and leaving behind the culturally dark ages of the years in between.

Day in the Life

Life during the Middle Ages was dominated by the feudal system. There was little central authority (aside from the church) and individual noblemen or lords owned and governed all land. They parceled their land out to dependents, or vassals, in the form of "fiefs," which the vassals would then work in order to make a living and keep the agricultural economy going. Vassals would also pay homage to the lord, even fighting for him if required to do so. The feudal system rigidly separated the different members of society into royals, knights, noblemen and peasants, with hardly any mobility between the classes. Religion played an enormous role in medieval life, and days of worship, feasts and holidays provided the most consistent schedule--aside from the various cycles of the farm calendar--for peasant and lord alike.

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17th-Century England

Century of Upheaval

The death of Queen Elizabeth I, the last of the Tudors, in 1603 ushered in a century of domestic conflict in England. The new Stuart monarchy clashed with Parliament, Puritans clashed with the Church of England and Catholics continued to be persecuted. Civil war broke out in 1642, spearheaded by the military leadership of Oliver Cromwell, and King Charles I was executed in 1849. Cromwell declared a Commonwealth and protectorate and divided the country into military districts governed by his own generals, which ended up turning the people against him. Royalist sentiment, fueled by resentment of Puritans and the military, grew ever stronger, and after Cromwell's death, the dead king's son returned from exile and was crowned Charles II in 1660. The new regime, and especially the policies of Parliament during this time, moved away from the strict moral codes of Puritanism and an increased repression of non-Anglican Protestants and Catholics. After Charles' Catholic brother, James, was crowned king in 1685, the country headed straight toward revolution, as James' opponents enlisted the king's own son-in-law, the Dutch prince William of Orange, to invade England and take the throne in 1688. As the century ended, William and his wife Mary ruled England jointly, as William sought to assert himself militarily over the territorial ambitions of France's Louis XIV. With order (if not harmony) restored, England began to reclaim its position as one of the strongest military and economic powers in the world.

Day in the Life

Despite the bitter struggles between Anglicans, Puritans and Catholics, life for many Englishmen was improving during the 17th century. New methods of agriculture had been introduced, the population was growing steadily and the development of colonies in North America and the West Indies meant that England was increasing its reputation as a trading power. A strong banking industry also developed over the century, culminating in the founding of the Bank of England in 1694. Even as these changes greatly improved life for nobles, merchants and the yeoman farmers who owned their own land, a great mass of the population--particularly the tenant farmers and laborers--continued to struggle to make a living. England's towns and cities were growing rapidly, and despite efforts to improve plumbing and transportation, they were dirty and unsanitary. Plagues broke out in London in 1603, 1636 and 1665, killing large numbers of people, mostly in the city's poorer sections.

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Salem Witch Trials

Hunting for Witches

Persecuted in England for their strict religious beliefs, 17th-century Puritans found a haven in the Massachusetts Bay Colony, where they could go about their business relatively free from the colonial government. In a Puritan town such as Salem, Massachusetts, close ties existed between government and clergy, and it was against the law not to go to church. In 1691, seeking to exercise more control over their New England colonies, the British set up a new colony incorporating Massachusetts with Plymouth, Maine and the islands of Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard (Maine remained part of Massachusetts until 1820).

The mass hysteria surrounding the Salem Witch Trials began in early 1692, when Massachusetts was awaiting the arrival of a new royal governor and a new charter. That governor, William Phips, would arrive only after the witch hunt had begun. The frenzy was sparked by a small group of girls who became fascinated with the stories of magic told by Tituba, a Caribbean slave in the household of Samuel Parris, the stern Puritan minister of Salem Village (part of the larger town of Salem). The girls soon claimed they had been bewitched by three local women, including Tituba; none of the women were churchgoers, and they were all social outcasts in some way. The town soon became possessed with the fear that more witches were out there, and more than 300 people were accused. A special court was set up in Salem to try the witchcraft cases; in all, a total of 19 suspects were executed, mostly at the gallows. As fear spread throughout Massachusetts, the accusations grew even wilder, and even Governor Phips' own wife was implicated. By September, public opinion had begun to turn against the witch hunters, and in October Phips dissolved the special court and released the remaining prisoners. The Massachusetts legislature later annulled the 19 convictions and granted indemnities to the families of the executed.

Day in the Life

Life was difficult in the Puritan world, where religious devotion, hard work and moral restraint were seen as the most important things in life. Most families worked constantly to support themselves, raising farm animals for meat, planting vegetables in the often harsh New England climate and making their own clothes. For Puritans, the Devil was as real as God, and the struggle between good and evil was a constant fact of life. Puritan children were held to same standards of behavior as adults--games and toys were seen as signs of idleness, and they were expected to pass the time working or studying Bible verses. Listening to Tituba's tales, for example, would have been strictly forbidden for young Betty Parris and her friends; that fact, of course, made it all the more tempting.

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