(Albanian Shqipëri, “Eagle's Country”), republic, SE Europe, located in the W part of the Balkan Peninsula; bounded on the NW and N by Serbia and Montenegro, on the E by the Republic of Macedonia, on the SE and S by Greece, and on the W by the Adriatic Sea and the Strait of Otranto. Albania, one of the smallest countries of Europe, has a maximum length from N to S of about 345 km (about 214 mi) and a maximum width of about 145 km (about 90 mi). The total area is 28,748 sq km (11,100 sq mi).

LAND AND RESOURCES

Albania is predominantly mountainous with peaks averaging between 2100 and 2400 m (between 7000 to 8000 ft). Lowlands, which comprise less than one-quarter of the land area, are limited to a belt along the Adriatic coast N of Vlorë and to several river valleys extending inland from the coast. The rugged North Albanian Alps form the S end of the Dinaric Alps and include Albania's highest peak, Mt. Korab (2751 m/9026 ft). In the central and S parts of the country the mountains are interrupted by high plateaus and basins. The coastal lowlands possess rich soils, but in many places the land is marshy or poorly drained.

Rivers and Lakes.

Most of Albania's rivers rise in the mountainous E and flow W to the Adriatic Sea. The largest of these—the Drin, Shkumbin, and Mat—have broad valleys. Albania's three large lakes straddle its borders: in the NW, Lake Scutari, and in the E, Lake Ohrid and Lake Prespa.

Climate.

The Adriatic coastal region has a typical Mediterranean climate, with mild, wet winters and hot, dry summers. Inland, a more severe continental climate prevails, with marked seasonal temperature extremes. Average annual precipitation ranges from about 1000 mm (about 40 in) on the coast to nearly 2500 mm (nearly 100 in) in sections of the N mountains. Summer precipitation is scant in all parts of the country.

Natural Resources.

Albania is well endowed in mineral resources and is especially rich in high-quality chromium ores. Other minerals are petroleum, copper, nickel, coal (mostly low-quality lignite), iron ore, phosphates, and natural gas.

Plants and Animals.

On the coastal region is found the typical Mediterranean chaparral vegetation of drought-resistant shrubs. Forests cover nearly 40% of the total land area. Thick forests are generally found only at higher elevations in the mountains; much of the other growth is scrub forests. Some common trees are oak, elm, pine, beech, and birch. Wildlife, found in the more inaccessible mountain regions, includes eagles, wolves, deer, and wild boar.

POPULATION

Albania is one of the most ethnically homogeneous countries in the world; about 98% of its people are Albanians, a group that is believed to be descended from the Illyrians, an Indo-European people who inhabited the area in ancient times. Minority groups include Greeks, Macedonians, Gypsies, Serbs, and Bulgarians. Large groups of ethnic Albanians live in Kosovo in S Yugoslavia, and in Greece and Italy as well.

The Albanians are divided into two main branches: the Ghegs and the Tosks. The border between the two groups is roughly formed by the Shkumbin R., the Ghegs occupying the area to the N and the Tosks occupying the area to the S. The groups are distinguished by minor differences in physical traits, dialects, and customs.

Population Characteristics.

In 2003 Albania had an estimated population of 3,166,000. Albania had the highest rate of natural increase (approximately 2.14% yearly) of any European nation from 1995 to 2000. Before World War II the population was mainly rural; since the 1950s rapid urbanization has occurred along with industrial development. About 41% was classified as urban in the early 2000s. .

Principal Cities.

The capital and chief city is Tiranë, with a population of 299,000 (2001 est.). Other major cities are the agricultural marketing center of Elbasan (224,974), the ancient town of Shkodër (185,793), the port and industrial center of Durrës (182,988), and the seaport of Vlorë (147,267).

Language.

The Albanian language is usually classified in the Thraco-Illyrian subfamily of the Indo-European languages and has two main dialects: Gheg and Tosk. During the Communist period an official language, based on Tosk dialects, was adopted.

Religion.

In 1967 the Albanian government abolished all religious institutions. Previously about 70% of the population was Muslim, 20% Greek Orthodox, and 10% Roman Catholic. Freedom of worship was officially restored in 1990. In the early 2000s 70% of the population was Muslim, 7% Albanian Orthodox, 5% Roman Catholic, and 18% others.

EDUCATION AND CULTURe

During most of the more than 400 years of Ottoman rule, the Albanian language and culture were suppressed. No Albanian-language school was permitted until the 1880s. While the Communist government held power, Albanian culture was influenced first by Soviet and then by Chinese models. Albania underwent a cultural revolution in the mid-1960s, and until the end of the 1980s most Western influences were suppressed.

Education.

Primary education is free and compulsory for children between the ages of 7 and 15. In the early 2000s about 535,238 students were enrolled in primary schools; enrollment (early 1990s) in secondary and technical schools totaled about 206,000 students. Institutions of higher education had a total combined enrollment (early 2000s) of about 40,859 students. The University of Tiranë (formerly Enver Hoxha University) was founded in 1957. The Communists combined education on the secondary and higher levels with work in factories or collective farms and military service. The literacy rate increased dramatically from 20% in 1939 to about 84% in the late 1990s.

Cultural Institutions.

Albania has more than 3600 libraries, the most important of which is the National Library (1922) in Tiranë with 1 million volumes. Also in Tiranë are the national companies of opera, theater, and ballet and the principal museums.

ECONOMY

Agriculture, mining, and manufacturing are the mainstays of the economy. Under the Communist government, industry was nationalized and foreign investment prohibited; agriculture was either collectivized or conducted on state farms. Since the fall of the Communist regime, land has been privatized, and foreign investment encouraged. Albania still remains one of the poorest European countries, with a gross national product estimated at $760 per capita as the 1990s began. Unable to produce enough grain to meet domestic needs in the early 1990s, Albania depended on food aid from Western Europe. As the country's unemployment rate rose to 40%, more than 300,000 Albanians found jobs abroad, mainly in Greece. The country's estimated annual budget included $1.1 billion in revenue and $1.4 billion in expenditure.

Labor.

More than 1 million Albanians were economically active in the early 2000s. In the late 1990s about 54% of the wage labor force engaged in agriculture, 25% in industry, and 21% in services. Under the Communist government, most workers belonged to the Central Council of Albanian Trade Unions, which was closely allied with the Communist party. Independent trade unions were established in 1991.

Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing.

About one-fifth of the country's land is arable. Major drainage and reclamation projects since the 1950s have added greatly to the total farmland. The major crops (with estimates of annual production in the early 1990s) include fruits and vegetables (248,000 metric tons), wheat (330,000 metric tons), corn (200,000 metric tons), sugar beets (140,000 metric tons), and potatoes (60,000 metric tons). Grapes, olives, cotton, and tobacco are also grown. Efforts have been made to improve the quality of a livestock population that includes some 500,000 cattle, 1 million sheep, and 170,000 pigs. Timberlands are an important natural resource and yield wood for fuel, lumber, and veneer. In the early 1990s the annual fish catch from the Mediterranean was 12,000 metric tons.

Mining.

Mining is an important sector of the Albanian economy. In the early 1990s the annual output of crude petroleum was 7.8 million barrels. Albania is traditionally one of the world's largest producers of chromite ore, but annual output slumped to 612,000 metric tons in the early 1990s. Other major exploited minerals are copper, nickel, coal, iron ore, and phosphates.

Manufacturing.

The Communist government emphasized the development of the formerly small manufacturing sector. Beginning in the late 1950s Albania established (first with Soviet and then with Chinese assistance) factories producing chemicals, cement, fertilizers, and machinery. Other plants included oil refineries, textile mills, and an iron and steel mill at Elbasan. Manufactured products also included asphalt, copper items, cigarettes, beer, and processed foods. Manufacturing declined drastically in the early 1990s, as many factories were dismantled.

Energy.

With its numerous mountain streams, Albania has great potential for developing hydroelectricity. Annual electric-power production in the early 2000s was about 5.40 billion kwh, of which more than 90% was generated by hydroelectric plants.

Currency and Banking.

The monetary unit of Albania is the lek (138.96 leks equal U.S.$1; 2002). The Albanian State Bank, which was organized in 1945, is the sole bank of currency issue. The National Commercial Bank of Albania, founded in 1993, functions as a central bank. Albania's first stock exchange opened in Tiranë in 1996.

Commerce and Trade.

The principal imports are heavy machinery, mineral fuels and lubricants, iron and steel items, and electronic and precision equipment. Exports include crude petroleum, asphalt, iron ore, chromium ore, copper, vegetables and fruit, tobacco, and wine. In the early 1990s annual exports earned about $45 million and imports cost about $120 million. Albania's main trading partners were Italy, the Republic of Macedonia, Germany, and other European countries.

Transportation.

Albania had no railroads before 1948; Tiranë and Durrës are now linked by rail with other major industrial centers. In the early 1990s there were about 670 km (about 420 mi) of railroad and about 7450 km (about 4630 mi) of roads. The only navigable river is the Buenë R., in the NW. The major ports are Durrës, Vlorë, Sarandë, and Shëngjin. Albania's one airport (at Tiranë) has flights to cities in several neighboring countries.

Communications.

During the Communist period all communications media in Albania were closely controlled by the government. At that time the country had only two daily newspapers, and one of these, the daily The Voice of the People, was the official organ of the central committee of the Albanian Party of Labor (APL). Several non-Communist dailies began publishing in the early 1990s. Television and radio broadcasting was formerly a state monopoly; by the end of the 1990s, however, private radio and television stations were operating, and the state-run broadcasting network was being transferred to public ownership. In the early 2000s Albania's telecommunications network encompassed about 152,700 main telephone lines, 20,000 cellular telephone subscribers, 12,000 Internet users, 405,000 television sets, and 810,000 radios.

GOVERNMENT

The constitution of 1946 proclaimed Albania a people's republic. A second constitution, enacted in 1976, was superseded in 1991 by an interim constitution that changed the name of the country to the Republic of Albania. A national referendum in 1998 approved a new constitution.

Executive and Legislature.

Under the constitution of 1998, executive power rests with the president of the republic, and the legislative power with the 140-seat People's Assembly. The president, who is commander in chief of the armed forces, is indirectly elected by the People's Assembly. He appoints the prime minister to head the Council of Ministers. The nation's first free multiparty legislative elections were held in 1991; most recent parliamentary and presidential voting took place in 2001.

Judiciary.

The highest judicial body is the supreme court, the members of which are elected by the People's Assembly for terms of four years. Justice is dispensed by appellate and district courts. Judges of the lower courts are nominated by the Higher Judicial Council, which is headed by the president of the republic.

Local Government.

Albania is divided into 36 districts. Local administration has been performed since 1991 by multiparty executive committees.

Political Parties.

From the mid-1940s through the '80s the country's only political party was the Communist party, officially known as the Albanian Party of Labor. Opposition parties were legalized in December 1990. In the March 1992 election, the Democratic party defeated the former Communists, running as the Albanian Socialist party. The Democratic party claimed a landslide victory in disputed parliamentary elections in 1996. The Socialists and their allies won a parliamentary majority in the elections of 1997 and 2001.

Health and Welfare.

The government provides retirement pensions, free medical care, workers' compensation, paid vacations, and other benefits for all workers and their families. Steps have been taken to correct the problem of insufficient medical personnel and facilities.

Defense.

In the early 1990s Albania's army numbered about 60,000 persons; navy, about 2000; and air force, about 11,000.

International Organizations.

Albania is a member of the United Nations (UN), the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, the Council of Europe, and the Organization of the Islamic Conference. Albania is also a participant in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) Partnership for Peace program.

HISTORY

The Albanians are considered descendants of the Illyrians, an Indo-European people who settled in Illyria, an ancient region of Europe in the western part of the Balkan Peninsula, about 1300 bc. The Illyrians established their own states during the 5th and the 3d centuries bc.

Ancient Times.

The Adrians Kingdom, founded in the 3d century bc, was the most prominent of the ancient states. It extended from the Dalmatian coast to the coastal regions of present-day Albania and reached the peak of its power during King Agron's reign (250–231 bc). The Adrians Kingdom became a naval power, preying on Rome's shipping and endangering its trade in the Adriatic. In 168 bc Rome conquered the Illyrian Kingdom and thereafter ruled it for more than five centuries. In the beginning of the Roman occupation, Albania proper became an important center, connecting Rome with Byzantium by its Via Egnatia.

The Illyrians played an important role in the Roman Empire (see Rome, History of). Several of the emperors were of Illyrian origin, namely, Claudius II and Probus (232?–282?) in the 3d century ad, and Justinian I in the 6th century.

Middle Ages.

With the division of the Roman Empire in ad 395, Albania became part of the Eastern Empire. During this period Albanian ports, such as Durrachium (Durrës), became important trade centers.

As the power of the empire declined, the Illyrian provinces were plagued by migrating tribes vying for control of the western parts of the Balkans. The Goths and Huns came in the 4th century, the Bulgars in the 5th century, and during the 6th and 7th centuries large numbers of Slavs began to penetrate Illyrian territories. Faced with the danger of assimilation, the Albanians—who had been converted to Christianity—moved southward, settling mainly in the rugged mountain regions, where they were nominally under the rule of the East Roman, or Byzantine, Empire.

During the 11th and the 12th centuries Albania was overrun by the Normans, and in 1190, during a period of Byzantine weakness, the Albanian prince Progon established an independent state. This lasted until the middle of the 13th century, after which the country relapsed into disunity. In the 14th century it was conquered by the Serbs. With the collapse of the Serbian Empire upon the death of Stephen Dushan (1308?–55), Albania fell under the domination of local feudal lords. The Topias and the Dukagjinis ruled in the north, the Muzakas and the Shpatas in the south.

Ottoman Rule.

The Ottoman Turks (see Turkey: The Rise of the Ottomans) invaded Albania at the end of the 14th century. Under the leadership of George Kastrioti, called Scanderbeg, the Albanians waged a successful 25-year struggle against Turkish occupation. In 1448 and in 1466 Scanderbeg repulsed large Turkish expeditions, but after his death in 1468 Albania became part of the Ottoman Empire. Many Albanians immigrated to Italy; during the nearly five centuries of Turkish occupation, the majority of the population converted to Islam and many Albanians rose to high positions in the empire.

The Turks never had total control over Albania. In the latter part of the 1700s, many native princes rose to prominence. From 1775 to 1796, the Bushatis ruled the Shkodër Duchy, extending their authority over northern and central Albania. From 1790 to 1822, Ali Pasha (1741–1822) ruled the duchy of Janina, which extended from Vlorë and Berat to Çamëria and Thessaly.

At the end of the 19th century nationalistic sentiments awakened. During the period of the Albanian League (1878–81), the Albanians waged a heroic struggle to preserve their territorial integrity against encroachments from their neighbors and to win autonomy from Turkey.

Independence.

On Nov. 28, 1912, after a series of revolts against Turkey, Albanian patriots led by Ismail Qemal (1844–1919) proclaimed the country's independence. At the London Conference of December 1912, the Great Powers recognized Albania's independence. The 1913 frontier demarcation by a special commission appointed by the Great Powers, however, excluded from Albania more than half its territory, including Kosovo and Çamëria, and about 40 percent of its people. Today several hundred thousand Albanians live in Greece, and about 2 million in Yugoslavia.

The Great Powers selected the German prince Wilhelm zu Wied (1876–1945) as Albania's ruler. Prince Wilhelm arrived in March 1914, but because of local opposition and the outbreak of World War I, he was forced to flee the country six months later. During the war, Albania became a battlefield for the Great Powers; with the coming of peace, it again faced the prospect of dismemberment by its neighbors. The Paris Peace Conference, however, rejected claims put forth by Greece, Serbia and Montenegro, and Italy, and Albania was saved from partition.

At the Congress of Lushnje, in January 1920, the Albanians established a provincial government and a council of regency; the following summer Italy recognized Albania's independence. During the next four years Albania was beset by a fierce struggle for power among competing political factions. By 1925 Ahmet Zogu (1895–1961) had achieved preeminence, and he ruled the country first as president, but from 1928 to 1939 as Zog I, king of the Albanians—a title that symbolically embraced the Albanian minorities in Greece and Yugoslavia. King Zog introduced broad cultural and economic reforms but entered into a political and military alliance with Fascist Italy. Heavy economic dependence on Italy in turn led to Italian interference in Albania's domestic and foreign affairs, and on April 7, 1939, Benito Mussolini's troops occupied Albania. King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy was immediately proclaimed king of Albania.

World War II.

Armed resistance to the invaders began soon after the invasion, but the few scattered Communist groups existing at the time did not participate in the resistance.

The Albanian Communist party was founded in November 1941, and Enver Hoxha, a young Western-educated schoolteacher, was elected its general secretary. The Communists launched their resistance movement against the invaders with the creation of the National Liberation Movement in September 1942 and the organization of the National Liberation Army in July 1943. The Allied command in Italy supplied material assistance.

In September 1943, preparing the ground for a seizure of power following the anticipated defeat of Germany, the Communists also launched a campaign against the nationalist organizations Balli Kombëtar (National Front) and Legaliteti (Legality Movement). After a bloody civil war, the nationalists were defeated, and by October 1944 the Communists were able to form a provisional government headed by Hoxha. A month later they seized control of the entire country.

The People's Republic.

On Jan. 11, 1946, a constituent assembly, elected the previous month, proclaimed the People's Republic of Albania. In March, a new constitution was promulgated and a new government formed, with Hoxha as prime minister. The Communist regime initiated a massive campaign of purges to eliminate real and potential opponents. Excessive wealth in private property was confiscated, all industrial plants and mines were nationalized, and a radical agrarian reform was instituted.

Relations with neighbors.

From 1944 to 1948, Albania's foreign policy was characterized by tense relations with Greece and the West and a close alliance with Yugoslavia. Plans, in fact, were under way for its absorption into Yugoslavia.

Following the Soviet-Yugoslav break in 1948, however, Albania aligned with the Soviet Union and subsequently received large-scale assistance from the USSR and other socialist countries. In 1949 it was admitted to the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON), and in 1955 it became a member of the Warsaw Pact.

In 1954 Hoxha relinquished the premiership to his deputy, Mehmet Shehu (1913–81), but continued to dominate the country as head of the Albanian Communist party. Albania's relations with the Soviet bloc began to deteriorate in the mid- and late 1950s, when Hoxha refused to go along with Moscow's policies of de-Stalinization, peaceful coexistence with capitalist countries, and rapprochement with Yugoslavia.

Alliance with China.

Albania's views on the most important issues affecting the socialist camp were similar to those of China, and by late 1960 the government had clearly moved toward an alliance with Beijing. In response, the Soviet Union and its East European allies cut off all assistance to Albania. Finally, in December 1961, the Soviet Union broke diplomatic relations with Albania.

China immediately sent in experts to fill the gap created by the withdrawal of Soviet advisers and provided low interest credits for Albania's 5-year plans. This enabled the country to defy the Soviet Union and to proceed with its economic development.

The Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968 caused Albania to reassess its foreign policy in general and its heavy reliance on China in particular. It normalized relations with Greece and Yugoslavia and expanded contacts with many Western and Third World nations.

Going it alone.

China's foreign policy reorientation in the early 1970s and the subsequent Sino-American rapprochement caused a cooling off in Albanian-Chinese relations. After several public Albanian condemnations of Chinese foreign policy, Beijing cut off all aid to its former Balkan ally in July 1978. Following the break with China, Hoxha's regime adopted a strategy of independent economic development, maintaining that reliance on foreign assistance compromises a nation's political independence. The late 1970s and early '80s brought steady improvement in Albania's relations with Greece, Western European nations, and the less developed countries; however, contacts with Yugoslavia were strained because of what the Albanian government alleged was mistreatment of ethnic Albanians in the southern Yugoslav province of Kosovo.

In December 1981 the government announced that Premier Shehu had committed suicide; he was later denounced as a foreign agent, and his supporters purged. Adil Çarçani (1922–    ) became premier in January 1982, and Ramiz Alia (1925–    ) replaced Haxhi Lleshi (1913–    ) as president in November. After Hoxha's death in 1985, Alia became leader of the Communist party.

Albania Turns to the West.

With the wave of democratization sweeping Eastern Europe in the late 1980s, Albania eased restrictions on religion and foreign travel, legalized opposition political parties, and broadened contact with the West; diplomatic relations with the U.S. were resumed in March 1991 after a 51-year break. At the same time, the Communists won in Albania's first free multiparty parliamentary elections, and enacted a new interim charter creating the post of president of the republic, to which Alia was then elected by the People's Assembly. The Communist party, which in June changed its name to the Albanian Socialist party, was defeated in elections in March 1992. In April Alia resigned, and parliament elected Sali Berisha (1944–    ), the first non-Communist president since World War II. Albania joined NATO's Partnership for Peace program in April 1994. Voters in November dealt a blow to Berisha by rejecting a new constitution he had supported. In 1995, the country was admitted to the Council of Europe.

The ruling Democratic party won the 1996 parliamentary elections by a wide margin after opposition parties withdrew to protest apparent irregularities. Antigovernment riots broke out in early 1997 when several fraudulent investment funds collapsed. Hundreds of thousands of Albanians had invested in the high-risk schemes, which were privately run but apparently sanctioned by government leaders. As rebellion and anarchy grew, foreigners were evacuated from the capital; about 17,000 Albanians sought refuge in Italy, and at least 3500 fled to Greece. In late March the UN Security Council authorized the deployment of a multinational force to protect deliveries of humanitarian aid. Led by Italy, more than 7000 multinational troops were sent to Albania in April, but they were unable to maintain order. Violence marred the parliamentary elections of late June and early July, which were won by the Socialists and their allies. Rexhep Mejdani (1944–    ), secretary-general of the Socialist party, was elected in July by the legislature to succeed Berisha as president. By August, when the last foreign forces withdrew, some 2000 Albanians had died in the civil conflict. Most of the refugees had returned to Albania by the end of the year.

A new crisis engulfed Albania in 1999 as a conflict between Serbian authorities and Albanian separatists in the neighboring Serbian-ruled Yugoslavian province of Kosovo, followed by the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia in March–June, spurred an influx of more than 440,000 ethnic Albanian refugees. Nearly all had returned to Kosovo by the end of August. Legislative elections in June and July 2001 proceeded peacefully, with the Socialists retaining their majority. In June 2002, the parliament chose a former defense minister, Alfred Moisiu (1929–    ), to serve as president. Socialist party leader Fatos Nano (1952–    ) was elected prime minister the following month.      E.Bi., ELEZ BIBERAJ, M.A., Ph.D.

For further information on this topic, see the Bibliography, sections 1002. Balkans, 1003. Balkan nationalism, 1004. Albania.