the smallest of the earth's seven continents, lying between the Indian and Pacific oceans, SE of Asia. It is bounded on the N by the Timor Sea, the Arafura Sea, and the Torres Strait; on the E by the Coral Sea and the Tasman Sea; on the S by the Bass Strait and the Indian Ocean; and on the W by the Indian Ocean. The continent extends for about 4025 km (about 2500 mi) from E to W and for about 3700 km (about 2300 mi) from N to S. Its coastline measures about 19,650 km (about 12,210 mi).

Australia, the country, is officially called the Commonwealth of Australia, and is a self-governing member of the Commonwealth of Nations. It is formed by Australia's five mainland states (New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Victoria, and Western Australia) and two territories (the Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory, an enclave within New South Wales containing Canberra, the federal capital), as well as the nearby island of Tasmania. The area is 7,614,500 sq km (2,939,964 sq mi) and, including Tasmania, is 7,682,300 sq km (2,966,141 sq mi).

The external dependencies of Australia, administered but not part of Australia, are the Ashmore and Cartier Islands Territory, Australian Antarctic Territory, Christmas Island, the Territory of Cocos (Keeling) Islands, the Territory of Heard Island and McDonald Islands, Norfolk Island, and the Coral Sea Islands Territory.

LAND AND RESOURCES

Australia lacks mountains of great height; the average elevation is about 275 m (about 900 ft). The interior is predominantly a great plain, which is generally higher in the NE. Low-lying coastal plains, averaging about 65 km (about 40 mi) in width, fringe the continent. In the E, SE, and SW, these plains are the most densely settled areas of Australia.

In the E the coastal plains are separated from the vast interior plains by the Great Dividing Range, or Eastern Highlands. This mountainous region averages approximately 1220 m (approximately 4000 ft) in height and parallels the E coast from Cape York in the N to Victoria in the SE. Subdivisions of the range bear many local names, including, from N to S, the New England Range, Blue Mts., and Australian Alps; in Victoria, where the range extends westward, it is known as the Grampians. The highest peak in the Australian Alps, and the loftiest in Australia, is Mt. Kosciusko (2228 m/7310 ft), in New South Wales. A section of the Great Dividing Range is in Tasmania, which is separated from the SE tip of the continent by Bass Strait.

The W half of the continent is a great plateau, about 305 to 460 m (about 1000 to 1500 ft) above sea level. It includes the arid Great Sandy, Great Victoria, and Gibson deserts. Western Australia has, in its N half, several isolated mountain ranges, including the King Leopold and Hamersley ranges. The interior is relatively flat except for several eroded mountain chains, such as the Stuart Range and the Musgrave Ranges in the N part of South Australia and the Macdonnell Ranges in the S part of Northern Territory.

The central basin, which extends W from the Great Dividing Range to the great plateau, is an area of vast, rolling plains. In this region lies the richest pastoral and agricultural land in Australia. Uluru (Ayers Rock), in the center of Australia, is believed to be the largest monolith in the world; it is 8 km (5 mi) across its base and rises sharply to some 335 m (some 1100 ft) above the surrounding flat, arid land. Other mountain ranges of limited size in the central part of Australia are the Flinders and Mt. Lofty ranges in South Australia. The region along the S central coast is called the Nullarbor (“no trees”) Plain. Extinct volcanic craters are located in the SE part of South Australia and in Victoria.

The coastline of Australia is generally regular, with few bays or capes. The largest inlets are the Gulf of Carpentaria in the N and the Great Australian Bight in the S. The several fine harbors include those of Sydney, Hobart, Port Lincoln, and Albany.

The Great Barrier Reef, which extends more than 1930 km (more than 1200 mi) along the E coast of Queensland from Torres Strait in the N to a point opposite Mackay in the S, is the largest known coral formation in the world. The chain of reefs forms a natural breakwater for the passage of ships along the coast.

Geology.

The great plateau of western Australia is underlain by a vast, stable shield of Precambrian metamorphic and igneous rocks, ranging in age from 570 million to 3 billion years old. These form the core of the ancestral continent, which, with Antarctica, had split off from Gondwanaland by Jurassic time, less than 200 million years ago, and had begun drifting eastward (see Plate Tectonics). Australia began to assume its modern configuration by Eocene time, some 50 million years ago, when Antarctica detached itself and drifted southward.

The thick sedimentary rocks of the Eastern Highlands were deposited in a great north-south trending geosyncline during an interval that spanned most of the Paleozoic Era. Compressive forces buckled these rocks at least twice during the era, forming mountain ranges and chains of volcanoes.

Rivers.

The Great Dividing Range separates rivers that flow E to the coast from those that flow across the great plains through the interior. The most important of the rivers that flow toward the E coast are the Burdekin, Fitzroy, and Hunter. The Murray-Darling-Murrumbidgee network, which flows inland from the Great Dividing Range, drains an area of about 1.1 million sq km (about 415,000 sq mi) in Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia. The Murray R. and its tributaries total about 3720 km (about 2310 mi) in length. The Murray R. forms most of the border between New South Wales and Victoria. A considerable portion of the river is navigable during the wet seasons.

The central plains region, sometimes known as the Channel Country, is interlaced by a network of rivers; during the rainy season these flood the low-lying countryside, but in dry months they become merely a series of water holes. The Victoria, Daly, and Roper rivers drain a section of Northern Territory. In Queensland the main rivers flowing N to the Gulf of Carpentaria are the Mitchell, Flinders, Gilbert, and Leichhardt.

Western Australia has few major rivers. The most important are the Fitzroy, Ashburton, Gascoyne, Murchison, and Swan rivers.

Lakes and Underground Water.

The major lakes of Australia contain salt water. The great network of salt lakes in South Australia—Lake Eyre, Lake Torrens, Lake Frome, and Lake Gairdner—is the remains of a vast inland sea that once extended S from the Gulf of Carpentaria. During the dry season many of the salt lakes become salt-encrusted swamp beds or clay pans.

Great areas of the interior, which otherwise would be useless, contain artesian water reserves beneath the surface of the land. These underground water reserves, usually found at a great depth, are tapped by drilling to provide water essential for livestock. Artesian water reserves underlie about 2.5 million sq km (about 965,000 sq mi) of Australia. The Great Artesian Basin, extending from the Gulf of Carpentaria into the N part of New South Wales, includes more than 1.7 million sq km (650,000 sq mi). Other artesian basins are in the NW, SE, and along the Great Australian Bight.

Climate.

The climate of Australia varies greatly, but the continent is not generally subjected to extremes of weather because of its insular position and lack of striking physical features. The climate ranges from tropical (monsoonal) in the N to temperate in the S. The tropical region, which includes about 40% of the total area of Australia, has only two seasons: a hot, wet season with rains falling mainly in February and March, during which the NW monsoons prevail; and a warm, dry season characterized by the prevalence of SE trade winds. Many points on the N and NE coast have an average annual rainfall of 1524 mm (60 in); in parts of Queensland average annual rainfall exceeds 2540 mm (100 in). On the fringe of the monsoonal region are the drier savanna grasslands, where the low, unreliable rainfall is supplemented by artesian water. In central and N Australia average summer temperatures range between 26.7° and 29.4° C (between 80° and 85° F). The deserts of central and W Australia, making up more than two-thirds of the area, have an annual rainfall of less than 254 mm (10 in).

The warm, temperate regions of S Australia have four seasons, with cool winters and hot summers. January and February are the hottest months, with average temperatures varying between 18.3° and 21.1° C (65° and 70° F). June and July are the coldest months, with an average July temperature of about 10° C (about 50° F), except in the Australian Alps, where temperatures of 1.7° C (35° F) occur. The E coastal lowlands receive rain in all seasons, although mainly in summer. The warm, temperate W and S coasts receive rain mainly in the winter months, usually from prevailing westerly winds. Tasmania, lying in the cool temperate zone, receives heavy rainfall from the prevailing westerly winds in summer and from cyclonic storms in winter. Over the greater part of the lowlands, snow is unknown; however, in the mountains, particularly the Australian Alps in S New South Wales and the N part of Victoria, snowfall is occasionally heavy. All of the S states are exposed to hot, dry winds from the interior, which can suddenly raise the temperature considerably.

Natural Resources.

Australia is rich in mineral resources, notably bauxite, coal, gold, iron ore, nickel, and petroleum. Fertile farmland is at a premium because much of the land is desert. Australia, however, has become one of the leading agricultural producers in the world by applying modern irrigation techniques to vast tracts of arid soil.

Soils.

All types of soils are found in varying quantities throughout the continent. Despite the fact that more than 43% of the surface consists of desert and sandy plains, suitable in places only for light grazing of sheep, soil resources are a significant factor in the Australian economy, with primary produce constituting a large percentage of the export trade. Phosphate additives have been used extensively as soil fertilizers for many years; large areas of marginal land have been made more productive by the use of trace elements, such as zinc, copper, and manganese, and some new lands have been opened up to production. Wind erosion in the semiarid pastoral and agricultural regions and water erosion in the wetter, deforested SE region are major problems. This menace to Australian productivity is being combated by means of contour plowing, restriction of grazing, and reforestation.

Plants.

The continent of Australia has a distinctive flora, which includes many species not found elsewhere. Predominantly evergreen, vegetation ranges from the dense bushland and eucalyptus forests of the coast to the mulga and mallee scrub and saltbush of the inland plains.

The tropical NE belt, with its heavy rainfall and high temperatures, is heavily forested. Palms, ferns, and vines grow prolifically among the oaks, ash, cedar, brush box, and beeches. Mangroves line the mud flats and inlets of the low-lying N coastline. The crimson waratah, golden-red banksias, and scarlet firewheel tree add color to N forests.

Along the E coast and into Tasmania are found forests of pine, which rank second to the eucalyptus in economic importance; the Huon and King William pines are particularly valuable for their timber. In the forest regions of the warm, well-watered SE and SW sectors, eucalyptus predominates; more than 500 species are found, some reaching a height of 91 m (300 ft). The mountain ash, blue gums, and woolly butts of the SE mingle with undergrowth of wattles and tree ferns.

The jarrah and karri species of eucalyptus, which yield timber valued for hardness and durability, and several species of grass tree are peculiar to Western Australia. The wild flowers of the region are varied and spectacular. In the less dense regions of the interior slopes grow red and green kangaroo paws, scented Boronia, waxflowers, bottle brushes, and smaller eucalypti, such as the stringbark, red gum, and ironbark. More than 500 species of acacia are indigenous to Australia; the scented flower of one acacia, the golden wattle, has been chosen as the national flower of Australia and appears on the official coat of arms. In the interior region of low, erratic rainfall, characteristic plants are saltbush and spinifex grass, which provide fodder for sheep, and mallee and mulga shrubs.

The most valuable native grasses for fodder, including flinders grass, are found in Queensland and N New South Wales. During occasional seasonal floodings, rapid and luxuriant growth of native grasses and desert wild flowers occurs, and water lilies dot the streams and lagoons.

Animals.

Unique and primitive forms of animal life exist in Australia. The mammals are particularly striking because of the absence of representatives of most of the orders found on other continents. The primitive, egg-laying monotremes are found most abundantly in Australia. One of them, the platypus, a zoological curiosity, is an aquatic, furred mammal with a bill like that of a duck and poisonous spurs. It lives in the streams of SE Australia. Another monotreme of Australia is the spiny anteater, or echidna.

Most native mammals are marsupials, the young of which are nourished in an external marsupium, or abdominal pouch. The best-known marsupials of Australia are the kangaroos, which include about 50 species. The kangaroo is vegetarian and can be tamed. The large red or gray kangaroo may stand as high as 2.1 m (7 ft) and can leap 9 m (30 ft). The wallaby and kangaroo rat are smaller members of the kangaroo family. The phalangers are herbivorous marsupials that live in trees; they include the opossum and the koala, a popular fur-bearing animal, which is protected throughout Australia. Other well-known marsupials are the burrowing wombat, bandicoot, and pouched mouse. The marsupial Tasmanian wolf, also known as Tasmanian tiger, which is becoming extinct, and the Tasmanian devil are found only on the island of Tasmania. Both are sheep killers.

Rodents, bats, and the dingo, or warrigal, belong to different orders of mammals. The dingo is a doglike night hunter and sheep killer; it does not bark, but howls dismally.

The continent contains a variety of reptile life. Although it has no alligators, it has two species of crocodiles, the smaller of which is found in inland fresh waters. The larger, fierce saurian crocodile of the N coastal swamps and estuaries attains 6 m (20 ft) in length. There are more than 500 species of lizards, including the gecko, skink, and the giant goanna. As many as 100 species of venomous snakes are found in Australia. The saipan of the far N, the death adder, the tiger snake of S Australia, the copperhead, and the blacksnake are the best known of the poisonous snakes.

The waters surrounding Australia support a wide variety of fish and aquatic mammals. Several species of whales are found in S waters, and seals inhabit parts of the S coast, the islands in Bass Strait, and Tasmania. The N waters supply dugong, trepang, trochus, and pearl shell. Edible fish and shellfish are abundant, and the oyster and crayfish of the warmer S waters have been exploited commercially. Australian waters contain some 70 species of shark, several of which are dangerous to humans. The Queensland lungfish, sometimes called a “living fossil,” is a fish that breathes with a single lung instead of gills.

Most insect types are represented in Australia, including flies, beetles, butterflies, bees, and ants. The giant termites of N Australia build huge, hill-like nests up to 6 m (20 ft) in height. Australia has earthworms in abundance, including the giant earthworms of Victoria, which range from 0.9 to 3.7 m (3 to 12 ft) in length, the longest in the world.

Australia is the home of 650 species of birds, ranging from primitive types, such as the giant, flightless emu and the cassowary, to highly developed species. The fan-tailed lyrebird has great powers of mimicry. The male bowerbirds build intricate and decorative playgrounds to attract females. The kookaburra, or laughing jackass, is noted for its raucous laughter. Many varieties of cockatoos and parrots are found; the budgerigar is a favorite of bird fanciers. The white cockatoo, a clever mimic, is more common than the black cockatoo. Black swans, spoonbills, herons, and ducks frequent inland waters. Smaller birds include wrens, finches, tits, larks, and swallows. Gulls, terns, gannets, muttonbirds, albatrosses, and penguins are the most common seabirds. The muttonbird, found mainly on the islands of Bass Strait, is valued for its flesh.

POPULATION

Most of the population of Australia is of European descent. Australia's indigenous peoples account for nearly 2% of the total. Before World War II more than 90% of the inhabitants were of British origin, but since the war more than 2 million Europeans from the continent have migrated to Australia. Since the early 1970s, when immigration laws were changed, Australia has become an increasingly diverse society with a large Asian population, including one of the world's largest communities of overseas Vietnamese.

Population Characteristics.

Australia is the most sparsely populated of the inhabited continents. The total population of Australia (2002 est.) was 19,546,792, giving the country an overall population density of about 3 persons per sq km (about 7 per sq mi). The country is heavily urbanized, however, with only about 15% of the population living in rural areas. Soil and climatic conditions have been controlling factors in the concentration of population in the well-watered, fertile coastal regions of the E, SE, and SW. More than 60% of all Australians live in the metropolitan areas of the capital cities of the six states. The country's population grew at an annual rate of about 1% during the late 1990s.

Indigenous Peoples.

Australian aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders are the two main groups of indigenous peoples; in 1996 the country had 314,120 aborigines and 28,744 Torres Strait Islanders. The indigenous population is much younger than other Australians: in 1996, indigenous peoples had a median age of about 20 years, compared with a median age of 34 years for the population as a whole. About 40% of the indigenous population was under 15 years of age; for Australians at large, the under-15 age bracket made up only 21% of the population. In the mid-1990s, life expectancy among indigenous Australians averaged almost 20 years below that of the population as a whole.

Australian aborigines.

Considerable uncertainty exists about the racial origins of the Australian aborigines, and, because no proven connection can be traced with any other living race, ethnologists usually class them as a separate race called Australoid. Among the physical characteristics of the Australoids are small, long skulls, low, receding foreheads, heavy brow ridges, and skin pigmentation that varies from reddish brown to dark brown. Some ethnologists view the Australoids as representing an archaic Caucasoid type, probably migrants from the Asian mainland in prehistoric times, with Dravidian and Melanesian affinities. Other ethnologists identify the Australoids as a surviving remnant of Neanderthals (see Human Evolution).

Linguistically, the Australoids are related to no other people. Certain resemblances between the languages of the native Tasmanians, a now extinct Negroid people, and those of the tribes of SE Australia have been noted, and a limited number of the Australoid and Melanesian tongues reveal connections, but available evidence is insufficient to demonstrate a relationship in either case.

Extreme multiplicity and variation of dialect are the outstanding features of the several hundred Australian languages, although certain words are the same in almost all the languages. The most important of the languages are Aranda (Arunta), spoken in the center of the continent, and Murngin, spoken in Arnhem Land. A measure of uniformity with respect to grammar prevails among the tongues spoken in the S half of the continent; otherwise the numerous languages of this region have little in common. The native languages of N Australia, and in particular the region lying generally N of the 20th parallel, are characterized by an almost total absence of mutual affinities. In addition, none of these languages reveals any similarities to the S tongues.

Traditionally, Australoids were essentially nomadic hunters and fishers, and their knowledge and practice of agriculture was rudimentary. Their only domesticated animal was the dog. As a rule their homes were little more than crude shelters against the elements. Many of the Australoids wore little or no clothing. The bow and arrow were unknown to them, but they were remarkably proficient in the use of the boomerang, the waddy (war club), and the throwing stick (a device for throwing a spear). They were also skilled in the construction of stone tools and in weaving bags and baskets. The distinguishing features of aboriginal decorative art are a facility in drawing, in both abstract geometrical patterns and representational designs, and a bold use of color.

Australoid social structure was based on the tribe, each with its own language and a complicated intertribal system of exogamic clans. As in many exogamic systems, marriages between the members of the various clans were governed by highly complex customs designed to prevent inbreeding and eliminate sexual rivalries. The male youths of the clans were invested with maturity by means of elaborate initiation rituals, which included circumcision, subincision, ordeals by torture, and such festivals as the corroboree. Initiation ceremonies also were held for young females. Religion among the Australoids was closely bound up with the social system. Each of the clans was totemic, and the totem animal or plant was regarded as embodying sacred attributes and was sanctified. By extension, all living things were regarded as having a close kinship with humans. Traditionally, the Australoids universally believed in reincarnation and, frequently, in a supreme deity. Most now consider themselves Christian.

Today, about two-thirds of the Australian aborigines live in cities and towns, and only a minority of aborigines live as nomads, mostly in Northern Territory, the N part of Western Australia, and N Queensland.

It has been estimated that at the time of the first European settlement in 1788 the aboriginal population of Australia was between 150,000 and 300,000. By the 1970s the population had declined to about 160,000 (including descendants of aborigine and island peoples) because of lack of resistance to the diseases introduced by Europeans, disruption of the aboriginal way of life, and, in the early period, government indifference to the aborigines. Although it had been thought that the aborigines were destined for extinction, the census counted 18% more aborigines in 1996 than in 1991, in part because aborigines were more willing to acknowledge their ancestry.

Torres Strait Islanders.

The Torres Strait Islanders, a seafaring people, are indigenous to the small islands of the Torres Strait, which separates Australia from Papua New Guinea. Traditionally, their economy was based on garden cultivation and on the harvesting of fish and turtles; their social organization was based on clans. Migration from the Torres Strait has been extensive since World War II, and about four-fifths of Torres Strait Islanders now live on the Australian mainland.

Status in Australian society.

In general, indigenous Australians remain economically disadvantaged; health conditions and educational opportunities are inferior to those enjoyed by most Australians of European ancestry. To improve conditions among indigenous peoples, the government in 1990 established the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission, which allocates funds for community development employment projects, community housing and infrastructure programs, heritage protection, health and drug abuse education, native title and land rights cases, and other purposes. A landmark ruling by the High Court in the Mabo case (1992) overturned the doctrine of terra nullius—the assumption that no one owned the land before the first Europeans came—and held that, under certain conditions, indigenous Australians retained native title to Australian property. Subsequent legislation and court cases have sought to define the scope of native land claims and what compensation, if any, indigenous peoples should receive. In November 1999, Australian voters turned down a proposed preamble to the constitution that would have honored “Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders, the nation's first people, for their deep kinship with their lands and for their ancient and continuing cultures which enrich the life of our country.”

Political Divisions.

The Commonwealth of Australia comprises six states and two territories. The states and their capitals are New South Wales (Sydney), Victoria (Melbourne), Queensland (Brisbane), South Australia (Adelaide), Western Australia (Perth), and Tasmania (Hobart). The territories and their chief cities are Australian Capital Territory (Canberra, the federal capital) and Northern Territory (Darwin).

Principal Cities.

The major cities of Australia are, in order of population (1999 est., greater city), Sydney, a seaport and the commercial center (4,041,400); Melbourne, the cultural center (3,417,200); Brisbane, a seaport (1,601,400); Perth, a seaport on the W coast (1,364,200); and Adelaide, a manufacturing center (1,092,900). Canberra, the national capital, had a population (2001 est.) of 387,000.

Language and Religion.

English is the official language of the commonwealth, and hundreds of languages and dialects are spoken by the indigenous peoples.

Australia has no established church, and all faiths enjoy complete freedom of worship. About 27% of Australians are Roman Catholic and 22% are Protestants, adhering to the Anglican Church of Australia. Other major Protestant bodies include the Uniting Church (founded in 1977 with the merger of Methodists, Presbyterians, and Congregationalists), the Baptist Union, and the Lutheran Church, and there are smaller Buddhist, Christian Orthodox (Greeks, Russians), Jewish, and Muslim populations.

EDUCATION AND CULTURE

The way of life in Australia substantially reflects the heritage of the British settlers. Customs were gradually modified as the settlers became adapted to the new country and its exceptionally fine climate.

Education.

Education in Australia is primarily the responsibility of the individual states. In each state administration the training and recruiting of teachers are centralized under an education department. Education is compulsory beginning at the age of 6 and continuing to 15 in all the states except Tasmania, where the upper age limit is 16. State schools provide free secular education; students may attend religious classes provided by the clergy of various denominations. Supplementing the state school system are private schools, which are usually denominational and charge tuition fees. The private schools, which in some states are called public schools as in England, normally accept day students and boarders. Schooling is provided at kindergartens and play centers for children from 2 to 6 years of age. Most children transfer from the primary to the secondary school level at the age of 12. Secondary schools, known as high schools and junior technical schools, provide 5- or 6-year courses and enable students in their final year to prepare for the state examination for university entrance. The commonwealth government conducts the educational program for all children in the territories. In the late 1990s Australia had about 9600 primary and secondary schools, with a combined annual enrollment of some 3.2 million students.

Universities and colleges.

Australia's system of public higher education was reorganized in the late 1980s. In the late 1990s the country had about 50 institutions of higher education, with a combined enrollment of more than 600,000. Among the leading universities were the Australian National University (1946), in the Australian Capital Territory; Macquarie University (1964), the University of New South Wales (1948), and the University of Sydney (1850), in New South Wales; the University of Queensland (1910); the University of Adelaide (1874), in South Australia; the University of Tasmania (1890); La Trobe University (1964), the University of Melbourne (1853), and Monash University (1958), in Victoria; and the University of Western Australia (1911). Established in 1991 through the amalgamation of four Catholic institutions of higher education, Australian Catholic University has campuses in Ballarat, Brisbane, Canberra, Melbourne, and Sydney. Specialized institutions include the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology (1887; university status 1992), in Victoria; Australian Maritime College (1978), in Tasmania; the Australian Defence Force Academy (1986), in Canberra; and the National Institute of Dramatic Art (1958), in New South Wales.

Culture.

Australia's cultural life in the 20th century can be divided into two distinct periods. From 1901 to World War II, Australians continued to reflect the basic tenets of their British origins. Cultural activities were dominated by the city populations within the framework of the old colonial divisions. The housing of the federal government in Melbourne until Canberra was built may have contributed to the preservation of the older orientation. Certainly, few writers and commentators addressed Australian-wide themes or problems.

World War I produced a new Australian identity and the first form of mass nationalism. Proud of their accomplishments in the war, yet humbled by its horror, Australians commemorated their experiences. The war hero was portrayed in larger-than-life monuments, with features suggestive of the individualism and gangliness of the Australian common man. Wartime literature as well as social organizations de-emphasized old class lines and gave credence to the commonality of all Australians.

Australians expected the 1920s and '30s to reflect a new nationalism in international affairs; yet they themselves tended to reassert their provincialism both within the League of Nations and the British Commonwealth. World War II therefore administered a shock to Australian culture. Recognizing their immediate dependency on U.S. military support and their need to better understand their own place in the world, Australians in fact launched a cultural revolution.

First to be changed was the ethnicity of Australian culture. Beginning in 1946, thousands of immigrants were transported from E and S Europe to the Australian suburbs. This migration rivaled the earlier transportation of convicts and made the Australian population more cosmopolitan in fact as well as in orientation. The prosperity of the 1950s encouraged new efforts in education. Almost overnight the number of universities in each state increased threefold, the governments providing free university-level education to all those individuals who were qualified.

In the 1960s, government and private attempts were made to integrate aborigines socially and culturally. At the same time Australians began to dissent more vigorously from the assumptions held by those in political power. Reaction to the Vietnam War was in part responsible, but a generation gap also seemed to divide the Australians. The qualities of Australian life were reexamined in new periodicals and newspapers, on campuses, and in town halls. Although such soul-searching had waned by the mid-1970s, the experience clearly contributed to the dissolution of older attitudes. The 1980s and '90s brought newfound appreciation of the distinctive history and heritage of Australia's indigenous peoples.

Libraries and museums.

The development of library services after World War II was facilitated by state subsidies to local authorities. The establishment of library schools by the National Library of Australia, the State Library of New South Wales, and the State Library of Victoria has raised the level of professional training of librarians.

The National Library of Australia (1968), in Canberra, serves as the library of the nation, the library of the federal Parliament, and the national copyright-depository library; in the late 1990s its holdings exceeded 5 million volumes. It has extensive collections of both Australiana and general research materials and provides bibliographical and reference services to the federal government departments. The State Library of New South Wales (1826), in Sydney, is the oldest and largest of the state public libraries and contains a noted collection of Australiana. The State Library of Victoria (1854), in Melbourne, includes collections on painting, music, and the performing arts. Other states maintain public libraries that are, in effect, state reference libraries. Library services in rural areas are being actively extended. Each state parliament is served by a library, and important research collections are maintained at the various university libraries. The major scientific libraries are those of the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization, an independent statutory authority with its headquarters in Canberra. Important special libraries are maintained by industrial concerns and by national and state government departments.

Australia has a variety of museums. The Australian Museum (1827), in Sydney, features collections on natural history and anthropology. The National Gallery of Victoria (Melbourne, 1859) houses exhibits of European and Australian paintings, as do the Art Gallery of New South Wales (Sydney, 1874), the Queensland Art Gallery (Brisbane, 1895), the Art Gallery of South Australia (Adelaide, 1881), and the Art Gallery of Western Australia (Perth, 1895). Also of note are the Powerhouse Museum (1880), also containing Sydney Observatory (1856) and Sydney Mint Museum (1817), and the Nicholson Museum (1860), both in Sydney; the Queensland Herbarium (1874); the Tasmanian Museum and Art Gallery (1852), in Hobart; and the Museum of Victoria, incorporating the former National Museum of Victoria (1854) and Science Museum of Victoria (1870), in Melbourne. The Australian National Gallery (1975), the Australian War Memorial (1941), and the National Museum of Australia (1980), containing Australian history and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Island cultures collections, are all in Canberra.

Literature.

See Australian Literature.

Painting.

Long before the arrival of Europeans, the Australian aborigines executed elaborate paintings on rock and bark and are noted for their rock paintings. The world's earliest known art was found in NW Australia; in the form of markings on rock, it may date to about 60,000 years ago—twice the age of the oldest European cave painting.

The value of early paintings by European immigrants lies in their importance as a record of the settlement of the country. Not until the 1880s did the first generation of white Australian artists, unhampered by the restrictions of European discipline, capture the unique Australian scenery, its light, and its atmospheric color. The first major exhibition of postimpressionist paintings, including work by Picasso, Matisse, Gauguin, Degas, and Modigliani, toured Australia in 1939. From the early 1940s the work of Australian artists reflected a gradual transition from the generally accepted traditional school to the modern style. Australian painters of the 20th century include Sir William Dobell (1899–1970), known for his portraits; George Russell Drysdale (1912–81), noted for depictions of the isolated inhabitants of the interior of the country; and Frederick Ronald Williams (1927–82), whose landscapes and seascapes were notable for their quality of light. The work of Sidney Nolan (1917–92), based on themes derived from Australian history and folklore, has achieved world renown.

Music, dance, and film.

The history of music begins with the British settlers of the country, who were influential in initiating public concerts. Today, each major city has a symphony orchestra, affiliated with the Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Distinguished artists and conductors from many countries regularly tour Australia. Australia has made notable contributions to the world of music through the sopranos Nellie Melba and Dame Joan Sutherland, the composer-pianist Percy Grainger, and the composers Arthur Benjamin (1893–1960), John Henry Antill (1904–86), Peggy Glanville-Hicks (1912–90), and Peter Sculthorpe (1929–    ). Classical ballet was introduced into Australia in the late 1930s; Australian ballet became internationally known after the Australian Ballet was founded in 1961 by the native-born dancer and choreographer Sir Robert Helpmann (1909–86) and others.

Beginning in the 1970s there was a resurgence of the motion picture industry, and films produced in Australia, dealing with Australian themes, such as Picnic at Hanging Rock (1975) by the Australian director Peter Weir (1944–    ), attracted audiences throughout the entire world. See Motion Pictures, History of.

ECONOMY

Australia is an outstanding producer of primary products. The country is self-sufficient in almost all foodstuffs and is a major exporter of wheat, meat, dairy products, and wool. Australia usually produces more than 25% of the world's yearly output of wool. The volume of manufacturing has grown rapidly since the 1940s, and mining became a leading sector in the economy during the 1960s. Indeed, minerals have surpassed wool as the leading export.

Living standards are high: the gross national product was $17,260 per capita in the early 1990s. In the fiscal year 1992–93 the estimated federal budget included about $68.5 billion in revenue and about $78 billion in expenditure.

Labor.

Under the Australian constitution, industrial controls on labor are divided between the commonwealth and the states. Federal power is confined to disputes that extend beyond the limits of any single state, and it is exercised through the Commonwealth Court of Conciliation and through arbitration and conciliation commissioners. Compulsory arbitration has been established at a federal and state level. Arbitration and conciliation courts or boards have the authority to make awards binding on employer and employee. The trade union movement, with about 2.5 million members, is strongly organized at local, state, and federal levels and is an economic and political power. Workers receive unemployment and sickness benefits, compensation for job-incurred injuries, basic wages and marginal awards, and general social and health benefits. The concept of a basic or minimum wage was established by law in 1907. Between 1921 and 1953 the basic wage was automatically adjusted to reflect quarterly rises and falls in the cost of living. The commonwealth terminated this automatic adjustment in September 1953, but several states later reintroduced the procedure. In the early 1990s about 7.7 million persons were employed in Australia.

Agriculture.

Despite the great expansion in mining and manufacturing after 1940, the prosperity of the country continues to be largely dependent on livestock raising and crop farming. The pastoral industry was established in the early days of settlement, when the first Spanish merino sheep were introduced from South Africa; the industry was a significant factor in Australian economic and historical development. Australia presently is the major world producer and exporter of wool, particularly fine merino, although income from wool exports is now less than one-tenth of the total export income of the country. In the early 1990s the annual production of wool was about 731,300 metric tons, about half of which was produced in New South Wales and Western Australia.

In the past the country's great rabbit population hampered sheep raising by foraging on grazing land. Although rabbits accompanied the First Fleet that delivered transportees (convicts) to Australia in 1788, their first significant arrival occurred in 1859 at the behest of a landowner, Thomas Austin. The shipment of two dozen wild rabbits was released on his property near Geelong, Victoria. Within three years the rabbits had assumed the proportions of a potential pest. Subsequently, the rabbit population was estimated to have reached some 500 million, or about 50 times the human population of Australia. The virus disease myxomatosis, which attacks rabbits, was introduced in 1936 and proved an effective control for about 20 years. The rabbit population increased somewhat thereafter, but not sufficiently to threaten the sheep-raising industry. Australia is a leading exporter of rabbit skins.

Queensland is the leading cattle-producing state, containing approximately 40% of the estimated 23.6 million head of cattle in Australia in the early 1990s. The country produces both beef and dairy cattle. Dairying is confined primarily to the high-rainfall coastal fringe and to the southeast.

Although only about 6% of the total area of Australia is under crop or fodder production, this acreage is of great economic importance. Wheat crops occupy about half the cultivated acreage, and fodder crops and other grains occupy 25%. The bulk of the wheat crop is grown in the SE and SW regions of the country. Annual production in the early 1990s was about 15 million metric tons. Oats, barley, rye, hay, and fodder crops also are important. Rice is grown in the Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area (in New South Wales) and in Northern Territory. Sugarcane production is confined to the fertile coastal fringe of Queensland and the Richmond R. district of N New South Wales. About 29.3 million metric tons of sugarcane were produced yearly in the early 1990s. Many types of fruit are grown, including pineapples, bananas, papayas, and citrus fruit. The major wine-producing areas are located in the Barossa Valley of South Australia, in Hunter Valley, New South Wales, and near Rutherglen in Victoria. Special varieties of grapes are grown, especially in the Murray Valley, for the production of raisins.

Forestry and Fishing.

Forests cover about 14% of Australia. The principal forest regions, found in the moist coastal and highland belts, consist predominantly of eucalyptus, a hardwood. Eucalyptus wood is extensively used in the production of paper and furniture. The jarrah and karri species, which are abundant in Western Australia, are noted for the durability of their woods. Queensland maple, walnut, and rosewood are prized as cabinet and furniture woods. Approximately 49.9 million ha (about 123.3 million acres) of forest are permanently preserved in state reservations. Because of the deficiency in coniferous forests, the country is forced to import large quantities of softwoods. State and federal pine forests have been established to help overcome this deficiency by raising extensive stands of Monterey pine. The annual harvest of roundwood in the early 1990s was about 19.3 million cu m (about 681.6 million cu ft).

Australian waters contain a great variety of marine life, but the annual catch is relatively small, approximately 227,300 metric tons. More than one-half of the yearly value of fishery products is made up of various shellfish, principally lobsters, prawns, oysters, and mussels. Other marine fish marketed include cod, snapper, flathead, mackerel, barracuda, and tuna. Pearls and trochus shells are harvested off the N coast. Darwin, Broome, and Thursday Island are the predominant pearling centers. Australia was a principal whaling nation until the late 1970s, when it agreed to halt most whaling activities in cooperation with an international effort to maintain the whale population.

Mining.

The mining industry, long an important factor in the social and economic growth of Australia, holds great promise for the future development of the country. The gold discoveries of the 1850s were responsible for the first major wave of immigration and for settlement of inland areas. A large part of the total gold production (about 241,100 kg/7.75 million troy oz per year in the early 1990s) is mined in Western Australia, notably near Kalgoorlie. Extensive nickel deposits were discovered in the same area in the late 1960s. Substantial iron-ore reserves exist at Iron Knob in South Australia; on Cockatoo and Koolan islands in Yampi Sound, Western Australia; in NW Tasmania; and in Gippsland, Victoria. Australia is a leading producer of uranium, with large deposits in South Australia and the Northern Territory. The annual production of diamonds soared to 35 million metric carats in the early 1990s, most of it from a mine at Argyle that is among the world's largest. Aluminum ingots are produced in Bell Bay, Tasmania, and important bauxite deposits exist in Weipa, Queensland. New South Wales and Queensland have enormous coal reserves; annual production of coal was more than 214 million metric tons in the early 1990s. A large gasification plant, using lignite mined at Yallourn, supplies much of Victoria's energy needs. Other major minerals include copper, mined at Mt. Lyell in Tasmania, Mt. Isa in Queensland, and Tennant Creek in Northern Territory; zinc, mined at Broken Hill in New South Wales; and manganese, mined at Groote Eylandt, Northern Territory. Titanium and zircon are recovered from the beach sands of S Queensland, New South Wales, and Western Australia; Queensland, New South Wales, and Tasmania are the main tin-producing states; and tungsten concentrates are mined on King Island in the Bass Strait. Petroleum has been discovered in Western Australia, in S Queensland, and offshore in Bass Strait. Total annual production in the early 1990s was about 200 million barrels.

Manufacturing.

After World War II, the introduction of new industries and the development of existing ones caused substantial expansion of manufacturing activity in Australia. In the early 1990s manufacturing contributed about 15% of the country's yearly domestic product, and manufacturing firms together employed about 13% of the civilian labor force.

Manufacturing facilities are concentrated in New South Wales (especially in Sydney and Newcastle) and Victoria (primarily in the Melbourne metropolitan area). New South Wales is noted for the production of iron and steel, jet aircraft, construction equipment, synthetic fibers, electronic equipment, power cables, and petroleum and petrochemical products. In Melbourne industrial activity includes the manufacture and assembling of machinery and motor vehicles and the production of food and clothing. Geelong, located near Melbourne, is known for its wool mills and motor works. South Australia, traditionally a pastoral and agricultural state, after 1950 developed several important manufacturing centers, including Adelaide and Whyalla. Brisbane and Townsville, in Queensland, have significant numbers of factories. Tasmanian industry, assisted by cheap hydroelectric power, includes electrolytic zinc mills and paper mills. Hobart and Launceston are the primary manufacturing centers in Tasmania.

Energy.

In the early 1990s about 90% of the electricity produced annually in Australia was generated in thermal facilities, the great majority of which burned bituminous coal or lignite. The country also had several hydroelectric plants, notably the major Snowy Mountains project (primarily serving Melbourne and Sydney) and a number of smaller facilities in Tasmania. In the early 1990s Australia's aggregate installed electricity-generating capacity was approximately 35.5 million kw, and its annual production of electricity totaled some 157 billion kwh. At the same time, domestic production exceeded by 2% the yearly consumption of crude petroleum in the country.

Currency and Banking.

The Australian currency system was converted in 1966 from the old British system of pounds, shillings, and pence to a decimal system based on a dollar divided into 100 pennies and coined in 5¢, 10¢, 20¢, and 50¢ pieces and $1 and $2 coins. The Australian dollar was worth half the pound it replaced (A$1.84 equals U.S.$1; 2002).

The first Australian bank was established in Sydney in 1817. The banking system now includes the Reserve Bank of Australia, established in 1911, which handles the functions of central banking, including note issuance; the components of the Commonwealth Bank Group, including the Commonwealth Development Bank and the Commonwealth Savings Bank; several privately owned trading banks and savings banks; and numerous branches of foreign banks. The unified Australian Stock Exchange, centered in Sydney, was established by merger in 1987.

Foreign Trade.

Traditionally, Australian tariff policy has favored essential Australian industries and granted preferential treatment to imports from certain British Commonwealth countries. Customs duties have also been levied for revenue purposes. Since the mid-1980s, however, most tariffs have been reduced or eliminated, in accordance with the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. During the 1980s, imports of goods and services often exceeded exports; inflows of investment capital from overseas helped to balance Australia's payments position. Favorable trade balances were posted in the early 1990s.

Japan and the U.S. are Australia's major trade partners. Other leading Australian export markets are South Korea, Singapore, New Zealand, Great Britain, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Indonesia. New markets have been developed in Asia for Australian wheat and other surplus commodities. Besides the U.S. and Japan, major suppliers of imports are Great Britain, Germany, New Zealand, Taiwan, China, France, Italy, and South Korea. Principal imports include machinery, transportation equipment, nonferrous metals, paper and paperboard, and textile yarns and fabrics. Animal products, notably wool and meat, are important items of export. Other major exports are grain, chemicals, coal, natural gas, metal ores, and nonferrous metals. In the early 1990s annual imports were valued at about $40.8 billion, exports at about $42.4 billion.

Tourism.

Direct contributions by the tourism industry to the Australian economy accounted for about 700,000 jobs and more than 7 percent of the nation's annual gross domestic product in the mid-1990s. Of more than 4.3 million foreign travelers entering the country, about 19 percent were residents of Japan, 16 percent lived in New Zealand, 10 percent were from the United Kingdom, and 8 percent from the U.S. Growth of tourism slowed in the late 1990s, mainly because of the recession in much of Asia. Notable among Australia's many tourist attractions are Sydney, site of the 2000 Summer Olympics and famed for its Opera House and Harbour Bridge; the beach resorts of Queensland's Gold and Sunshine coasts; the wine country of South Australia's Barossa Valley; Uluru (Ayers Rock) and other aboriginal heritage sites in the Northern Territory; and such outdoor pastimes as surfing at Bondi and other sparkling sand beaches in the Sydney area, snorkeling in the Great Barrier Reef, and bushwalking in the rugged interior.

Transportation.

Each Australian state established its own rail network prior to federation; as a result, the gauge varies from one state to another. A general program for standardization of railroad gauges throughout Australia is in progress. In the early 1990s about 37,300 km (about 23,200 mi) of railroad track was owned and operated by the federal and state governments.

Australia has approximately 810,300 km (approximately 503,500 mi) of roads, about 36% of which are paved. Some 10 million motor vehicles (more than one vehicle for every two persons) are registered. A comprehensive network of airline services links major cities and even remote settlements. Because of the long distances between cities and the country's ideal flying conditions, Australians are especially air-minded. Qantas Airways, Ltd., operates services to many world capitals, and numerous other international airlines operate to Australia. Coastal and transoceanic shipping is vital to the Australian economy. Major ports include Melbourne, Sydney, and Fremantle.

Communications.

Australia has one of the world's most modern telecommunications systems. Since 1975 a government authority now known as Telstra has been primarily responsible for telecommunications services within Australia; with the opening of Australia's telecommunications markets to full competition, Telstra was partially privatized in the late 1990s. Australia Post manages the postal services. In the late 1990s the country had 9.6 million main telephone lines and 5.4 million cellular telephone subscribers; an estimated 3 million Australians were using the Internet.

Government and commercial radio and television systems operate concurrently. The Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC) is a statutory authority operating six distinct radio networks, an international radio service, an online service, and numerous retail outlets. Commercial stations number about 260; unlike the national stations, these carry advertising. Television programs are transmitted within range of 99 percent of the population by the ABC's national television network and by nearly 50 commercial stations. Australia has about 500 newspapers, some 70 of which are dailies with a combined daily circulation of about 6.7 million copies. The Australian is the national general newspaper; among the other large-circulation metropolitan dailies are the Morning Herald (published in Sydney), Courier-Mail (Brisbane), Advertiser (Adelaide), and West Australian (Perth).

GOVERNMENT

Australia is an independent self-governing state and a member of the Commonwealth of Nations. The constitution of Australia, which became effective in 1901, is based on British parliamentary traditions and includes elements of the U.S. system. The head of state is the British sovereign, and the head of government is the Australian prime minister, who is responsible to the Australian Parliament. All powers not delegated to the federal government are reserved to the states. In March 1986, the Australian Act abolished the remaining legislative, executive, and judicial controls of the British Parliament. A proposal to turn Australia into a republic was defeated by popular referendum in November 1999.

Executive.

Formally, executive authority in Australia is vested in the governor-general, the representative of the British monarch. The governor-general acts only on the advice of the Executive Council, or cabinet, comprising all ministers of state. Federal policy in practice is determined by the cabinet, which is chaired by the prime minister. The ministers are responsible for the individual departments of the federal government, and these departments are administered by permanent civil servants.

Legislature.

National legislative power in Australia is vested in a bicameral parliament, made up of a senate and a house of representatives. The Senate consists of 76 members (12 from each state and 2 each from the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory), popularly elected to 6-year terms under a form of proportional representation. According to the Australian constitution, the House should have about twice as many members as the Senate. The number of members from a state is proportional to its population, but must be at least five. In the late 1990s the House had 148 members, popularly elected to a term of up to 3 years. The prime minister can ask the governor-general to dissolve the House and call new elections at any time.

A bicameral system of government exists in each state except Queensland, which has only one house (the upper house was abolished in 1922). The British sovereign is represented in each state by a governor. Governmental affairs are handled by a cabinet, the head of which is known as the premier.

Judiciary.

At the head of the judicial system of the commonwealth is the High Court of Australia, consisting of seven members appointed by the governor-general in council. There are lesser federal courts and state supreme courts.

Local Government.

In each Australian state, local government authorities are responsible for traffic and building regulation; maintenance of streets, bridges, local roads, water and sewerage, parks, libraries, and hospitals; and similar functions. Among these authorities are shire councils, borough councils, and town and city councils. Legislation granting power to local authorities exists in each state. Northern Territory of Australia became self-governing in 1978 and the Australian Capital Territory in 1989.

Political Parties.

There are three major political parties in Australia: the Australian Labor party, the National Party of Australia (NP), and the Liberal Party of Australia. The Labor party, representing the interests of the worker, advocates a broad program of moderate socialization. The trade unions are a controlling factor, for the Labor party is the political wing of the trade union movement. The NP, formerly known as the Country Party of Australia, reflects the outlook of the nonurban population. The Liberal party pursues a liberal national policy and advocates a free enterprise society. The aims of the Liberal party and the NP ordinarily have much in common, and the two parties usually work in coalition. For practical purposes, Australian politics operates on a two-party system, which results in relative stability of government.

Health and Welfare.

The government of Australia has played an important role in advancing social services. Government programs assist people who are sick, aged, widowed, or unemployed. A maternity allowance is paid to mothers irrespective of income, and an endowment for all children under 16 years of age is payable to the parent or other person with custody. Medical and hospital benefits are paid by the federal government. Health conditions and facilities in Australia are among the finest in the world. In the early 1990s, average life expectancy at birth was 80 years for women and 74 years for men; the infant mortality rate was 6.6 per 1000 live births. The Flying Doctor Service provides medical services for persons in outlying areas of the country.

Defense.

The system of defense employed by Australia dates from 1911, when the commonwealth government first instituted compulsory military service and created the Royal Australian Navy. Australians were on active service with the Royal Flying Corps in World War I; the Royal Australian Air Force was not established until 1921. The first enemy attack on Australian territory was the aerial bombing of Darwin by the Japanese early in World War II. Australian forces have taken part with distinction in the Crimean War, the Sudan campaign, the Boer War, both world wars, the Korean War, and the Vietnam War.

In the early 1990s service in the Australian armed forces was voluntary. The army numbered about 28,600; the navy, 15,300; and the air force, 19,300. Although small, the armed forces are equipped with modern weapons.

Australia is a signatory of ANZUS, a mutual defense pact signed with the U.S. in 1951. Australia maintains military ties with New Zealand, which until 1986 was also an ANZUS participant.

International Organizations.

In addition to its membership in the Commonwealth of Nations, Australia is a founding member of the United Nations (UN), and a member of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the World Trade Organization, and the South Pacific Forum.

HISTORY

Ancestors of the people now known as Australian aborigines arrived at least 60,000 years ago and perhaps more than 116,000 years ago. Although Chinese and Arab sea captains may have landed in northern Australia before ad 1000, Australia remained unexplored by the West until the 17th century.

EARLY EUROPEAN EXPLORATION

In late medieval European logic and mythology, a great Southland, or Terra Australis, was thought necessary to balance the weight of the northern landmasses of Europe and Asia. Terra Australis often appeared on early European maps as a large, globe-shaped mass in about its correct location, although no actual discoveries were recorded by Europeans until much later. Indeed, the European exploration of Australia took more than three centuries to complete; thus, what is often considered the oldest continent, geologically, was the last to be discovered and colonized by Europeans.

Portuguese and Spanish Sailings.

In the 15th century Portugal's systematic drive southward along the west coast of Africa, seeking trade with India, rekindled European interest in finding Terra Australis. Portugal itself, however, soon successful in Indian and also East African trading, lost interest in moving any farther to the east and south. Australia remained unsighted for other reasons as well. One was that the continent's location was off the Oceanic island–trading corridor of the Indian and South Pacific oceans. In addition, the winds in the southern hemisphere tend to veer northward in the direction of the equator west of Australia, whereas east of the continent the strong head winds discourage sailing into them.

In the 16th and early 17th centuries, Spain, having established its empire in South and Central America, began a series of expeditions from Peru into the South Pacific. Encouraged by the sighting of the Solomon Islands (northeast of Australia) by Álvaro de Mendaña (1541–95) in 1567, Spanish New World officials launched several expeditions in hopes of finding gold. After the failure of these voyages to find either precious minerals or significant new landmasses, however, Spain abandoned its interest in Terra Australis after 1605.

Dutch Interest.

Portugal's involvement in India and Spain's discouragement allowed the rising power of the Netherlands to establish a string of trading centers from the Cape of Good Hope to Indonesia in the 17th century. The Dutch, stationed chiefly in the Indonesian ports of Bantam and Batavia (Jakarta), quickly made the conjectured continent of Australia a reality. Helped by better sailing ships, they were able to overcome the challenges in the southern Pacific. In 1606 Willem Jansz (1570?–1629) sailed into Torres Strait, between the Australian mainland and New Guinea. (The strait was later named for a Spanish explorer, Luis Vaez de Torres (d. 1613), who sailed into the same area in the same year and determined that New Guinea was an island.)

Encouraged by Jansz's voyages, Dutch governors-general at Batavia commissioned expeditions into the southern oceans. The most successful of these expeditions was that of Abel Tasman, who in 1642 moved into the waters of southern Australia, landing on the island now known as Tasmania, which he named Van Diemen's Land. Tasman then sailed farther east and north to explore New Zealand. Dutch ships sailing to Indonesia often sailed off course, and their crews landed on the western and northern coasts of Australia. Despite their increasing knowledge of the continent, which they called New Holland, the Dutch did not follow up their oceanic discoveries with formal occupation; in their contacts, they found little of value for European trade. Thus, the way was open for the subsequent arrival of the British to the continent.

British Expeditions and Claims.

At first Britain's involvement in Australia appeared likely to go the way of the Spanish and Dutch, but in the late 17th century the British launched two expeditions. The first one, in 1687–88, was led by a buccaneer, William Dampier, who landed in the northeast. When he returned to England, he urged further voyages in pursuit of the continent's supposed wealth. The second expedition—along the western coast in 1699—resulted, however, in a rather dismal assessment of the land's potential. Descriptions of the population, the aborigines, and their desertlike environment were especially uninviting. English interest in the continent declined accordingly.

The 18th century in Western Europe ushered in the Age of Reason, when philosophers and scientists stressed the value of global discovery, of learning more about the earth and in collecting unusual flora and fauna from around the world. Emphasis was also placed on finding people in their natural state. These inquiries fit well with Britain's growing power as a maritime empire.

In 1768 Capt. James Cook left England on a 3-year expedition to the Pacific that also took him to Australia. Cook landed at Botany Bay on the eastern coast. He charted the region and named it New South Wales. It was he and his staff, including the botanist Sir Joseph Banks, who later supported settlement in Australia. Cook's two additional voyages in the 1770s added information on the Australian landmass and cemented Britain's claims to the continent.

French interest was less sustained than that of the British. Marion Dufresne, on his 1772 voyage, concentrated on charting and describing the less hospitable western coast and Tasmania, and later French explorers investigated Australia's southern coast. By then, however, the British had planted their first settlement and had claimed the eastern half of the continent.

Even with Britain's sustained efforts, Australia's coasts were not fully explored until the 19th century. Matthew Flinders was the first to circumnavigate (1801–3) the continent. He charted most of the coastline, but it was mid-century before the continent's major interior features were known.

PENAL SETTLEMENTS

Australia was far from an attractive land for European settlement, and for that reason Britain moved quickly after the American Revolution in 1783 to establish its first settlement: Americans would no longer accept British convicts. Food shortages, harsh penal laws, and the general displacement of people during the early stages in the Industrial Revolution in Britain added to its criminal population. Leading reformers of that day assumed that the best way to eliminate crime was to remove these criminals from society. In 1786 the British government announced its intention to establish a penal settlement in Botany Bay.

Sydney Founded.

On May 13, 1787, Capt. Arthur Phillip (1738–1814) of the Royal Navy set sail from Portsmouth with the First Fleet. The 11 ships carried 759 convicts (568 males, 191 females); 13 children belonging to the convicts; 211 marines and officers to guard the convicts; 46 wives and children of the marines; and the governor with his staff of 9. Phillip arrived at Botany Bay on Jan. 18, 1788. Finding the bay a poor choice, he moved north to Port Jackson, which he discovered to be one of the world's best natural harbors. Here, he began the first permanent settlement on January 26, later to be recognized as Australia Day, the country's national holiday. The settlement was named Sydney Cove for Britain's home secretary, Thomas Townshead, 1st Viscount Sydney (1733–1800), who was responsible for the colony. Phillip's domain covered half of Australia (from the eastern oceanic waters to as far west as the 135th meridian), but his human resources were limited. In particular, he lacked the horticulturalists, skilled carpenters, and engineers needed to develop a self-supporting colony. His major concern, until his departure in 1792, was ruling virtually single-handedly over the small penal settlement.

Three major problems confronted the early governors: providing a sufficient supply of foodstuffs; developing an internal economic system; and producing exports to pay for the colony's imports from Britain. Land around Sydney was too sandy for suitable farming, and the colony faced perpetual food shortages through the 1790s. (Natural food sources were largely limited to fish and kangaroo.) Phillip established farms on the more fertile banks of the Hawkesbury River, a few miles northwest of Sydney, but this land was often flooded or still used by the aborigines. Needed food supplies came mainly from Norfolk Island, nearly 1600 km (about 1000 mi) away, which Phillip had occupied in February 1788; the island later served as a jail for the more hardened criminals.

The New South Wales Corps.

In 1792 the Royal Marines were replaced with the New South Wales Corps, which had been specifically recruited in Great Britain. Given grants of land, members of the corps became the colony's best and largest farmers, but they also posed a serious threat to the governors by their power over the economy. With a sharp eye for enhancing their income, they specialized in controlling the price of rum, which served largely as the colony's internal means of exchange.

Capt. John Hunter (1738–1821), Phillip's successor as governor, who arrived in 1795, tried in vain to gain control of the rum traffic. The next governor, Capt. Philip G. King (1758–1808), who served from 1800 to 1806, was no more successful. Both governors also had to house additional arrivals, and in 1804 King had to use the corps to put down a rebellion by Irish convicts.

In 1806 Capt. William Bligh replaced King. The captain had gained notoriety earlier, when the crew of his ship, the Bounty, had mutinied in the Pacific. Bligh threatened the corps with the loss of their monopoly. He was met with the so-called Rum Rebellion, and on Jan. 26, 1808, officers of the corps arrested him. Bligh was later sent to London, where he successfully defended his policies, but he was not restored to his governorship. The Rum Rebellion thus gave the leaders of the corps the immediate victory. Meanwhile, one of its ringleaders, John Macarthur (1767–1834), had found the solution to the colony's lack of valuable exports; in 1802 he had shown British manufacturers samples of Australian wool. It was only after 1810, however, with the breeding of the merino sheep, with its long staple wool, that sheep grazing gradually developed into a major economic activity.

Macquarie's Government.

Bligh's replacement, Lachlan Macquarie (1762–1824), served as governor from 1809 to 1821. The most talented governor since Phillip, he also became the most powerful. The New South Wales Corps was sent home, and because the economy had improved, the government gained stability. Macquarie began an extensive public works program, employing the ex-convict Francis Greenway (1777–1837) to design churches, hospitals, and government buildings in Sydney. The population of the colony also increased after Britain's defeat of Napoleon in 1814. The arrival of more free settlers brought more claims to farmland on which more convicts could serve as laborers.

These two new groups of colonists, however, reflected a growing tension within New South Wales. As convicts completed their sentences or were eligible for release due to good behavior, they wanted land and opportunities. They were known as the emancipists, and their leaders urged that they be given more rights. The free settlers, like the corps before them, maintained that convicts, even after their release, should not be treated as equals. They were known as the exclusives. Macquarie, as had Bligh, tended to support the emancipists, granting them land and appointing them to minor offices. The exclusives, therefore, became critical of both Macquarie and the emancipists.

Constitutional Reform.

Macquarie's government was expensive, and most of the burden had to be carried by the British treasury. Overseas punishment, however, did not appear to have reduced the number of convicts, and many wondered if New South Wales was the proper solution to Britain's crime problems. In 1819, the British Colonial Office sent Judge John Thomas Bigge (1780–1843) to inspect and report on Macquarie's administration. He recommended slashes in government expenses but assumed that New South Wales should continue as a convict settlement. He also, however, recognized the colony's growing importance to the British Empire as a home for wealthy free settlers, and he popularized the name Australia for the southern continent. Bigge's reports resulted in a major change in the constitution for New South Wales in 1823. By an act of Parliament the governor's autocratic powers were reduced with the appointment of a nominated legislative council.

In 1825, by an executive order of the British government, the island settlement of Van Diemen's Land (present-day Tasmania) became a separate colony. A penal colony had been established there in 1803 out of fear that France was ready to claim the island. Although settlements south and north of Sydney had been attempted in the same period, only Van Diemen's Land became a large permanent settlement.

Early Australian Society.

The convicts—and reaction to them—became the major theme of early Australian history. Although the sending of convicts to New South Wales stopped in 1840 and to Van Diemen's Land in 1852, Britain had sent more than 150,000 to the two colonies. Approximately 20 percent were women, and about one-third were Irish; the majority came from the poorer classes of British towns. Many had been repeatedly convicted of petty crimes, and many of the females had been prostitutes. Poorly educated, only about half of the convicts could read or write. A minority of the prisoners were from the upper class and were serving sentences for crimes such as forgery; these convicts were often able to use their training in business and in government offices. In general, however, because they were unskilled and unaccustomed to the rigors of colonial or prison life, the convicts were an exceptionally difficult population with which to build a new society.

Until the 1830s, colonial officials endorsed harsh punishments for convicts who committed crimes in the colony. Flogging was a common penalty—up to 200 lashes for crimes of theft. Although most convicts were fed and clothed by the government, many were sent out to work for others. Those with cunning and skills might accumulate wealth, and a few became the founders of prominent colonial families.

Although before 1820 seals were hunted in the rich waters of Bass Strait, it was wool that connected Australian society with its counterpart in Great Britain. In 1813 the Blue Mountains, 80 to 120 km (50 to 75 mi) west of Sydney, were crossed, and westward settlement of New South Wales was begun. The inland plains proved highly suitable for grazing, and by 1829 the government had become concerned about the dispersal of the graziers, who were known as squatters, since they obtained licenses to “squat” on the land they wanted rather than buying it. Efforts to control squatting failed in part because of the continuing demand from British textile mills for more wool.

Like England, the Australian colonies were officially Anglican in religion. The authorities, however, neglected religious instruction, and the Anglican faith was not the religion of the bulk of the population; Roman Catholicism (maintained by the Irish) and Methodism vied with the official religion. New South Wales tended to remain indifferent to religious creeds.

Education was also neglected by the government, which generally provided only a few schools for orphans. Wealthier colonists employed tutors for their children. The colony did develop a lively press, beginning in 1803 with the publication of the Sydney Gazette and New South Wales Advertiser. The Gazette's editor, George Howe, also published the first books in Sydney, including a volume of poetry (1819) by Judge Barron Field (1786–1846). Earlier, David Collins (1756–1810), who had been with Phillip, had published in London the first history of Australia, An Account of the English Colony in New South Wales (2 vol., 1798–1802). In 1824 the statesman William C. Wentworth, born in the colony, helped found the Australian, a more opinionated newspaper that campaigned for the emancipists.

EXPANDING COLONIZATION

From the 1820s to the '80s, Australia underwent major processes that laid the foundation for its present society. Among these were the establishment of new colonies along the coasts, the expansion of sheep and cattle raising in the interior, and the discovery of gold and other minerals in the eastern colonies.

New Settlements.

As a prelude to increased British interest, Capt. James Stirling (1791–1865) explored the Swan River on the western coast in 1827 and led a group of British investors in the establishment of Western Australia in 1829. Underfinanced, Stirling's new settlement of free settlers at Perth stagnated. In 1850 the colony requested convicts to increase its labor supply and received about 10,000 until 1868. Only with the discovery of gold in the 1890s, however, was the fortune of Western Australia reversed.

South Australia, with its capital of Adelaide, was established in 1836 under a plan by Edward Wakefield (1796–1862), a British reformer who wanted to create new colonies reflecting British cultural values. By selling land rather than giving it away (the past British practice), Wakefield hoped to use the income to sponsor the immigration of laborers to meet the needs of colonial farmers. By controlling land prices, he assumed he could regulate colonial expansion. The new colony eventually succeeded as a society of small grain farmers.

Growth of Sheep Grazing.

Australian soils and climate, however, were better suited for large-scale grazing than for farming, and the most successful and dramatic transformation of the Australian continent occurred in the 1830s and '40s, as squatters established huge sheep runs. Paying only £10 a year for a license, squatters could claim virtually as much land as they wanted.

The expansion of sheep grazing resulted in the colonization of the Port Phillip district, which in 1850 became the colony of Victoria, with its capital at Melbourne (founded in 1836). To the north, graziers also gave the outlines to another colony, Queensland (with its capital at Brisbane), which was separated from New South Wales in 1859.

From 1830 to 1850 wool exports rose from £2 million to £41 million. With new immigrants and the growth of the capital cities, each of which served as the major port for its region, the Australian colonies began to agitate for more control over their governmental systems.

Development of Political Institutions.

The transfer of more authority from Great Britain to the colonies was helped by Britain's adoption of free trade in the late 1840s. Free trade, which meant that Britain would buy from the lowest-price supplier and sell in the most profitable market, eliminated—at least in principle—the need for colonies. Thus, in 1850, without having to unite into a common front, the eastern colonies received new constitutions. Victoria, South Australia, and Van Diemen's Land (which changed its name to Tasmania in 1856) were given legislative councils, with two-thirds of the membership to be elected. New South Wales had been granted the same provision in 1842.

By the mid-1850s each of the four eastern colonies refashioned its governmental system and gained control over its land policy. The new systems vested power in a cabinet or council of ministers responsible to the legislature and provided a popularly elected assembly as a part of that legislature. Voting by ballot (instead of by the raising of hands) and other innovations made the new governments quite democratic. The new constitutions reflected the interests of the urban populations, who wanted to reduce the political power of the graziers, but the graziers still managed, during the 1850s and '60s, to gain more security in their landholdings.

Gold Rush and Consequences.

The gold rush of the 1850s sped up the development of the social and political systems. In April 1851, Edward Hargraves (1816–91) found gold at Summer Hill Creek in New South Wales. With the recent experience of the California gold rush in mind, others joined in the rush, which quickly became centered in Victoria at Mount Alexander, Ballarat, and Bendigo. Gold was later found elsewhere in New South Wales and Queensland.

In the following ten years, Australia exported more than £124 million worth of gold alone. By that time (1861), the Australian population had reached almost 1.2 million, a threefold increase over the 1850 population of 400,000. Americans as well as Britons and Canadians joined the immigrants to the eastern colonies. In Victoria, miners quickly became irritated with the high cost of mining licenses and restrictions on their right to search for gold. Before the fees were reduced, a small band of miners staged an uprising at the Eureka stockade at Ballarat in December 1854.

Both miners and colonists responded with alarm to the influx of Chinese immigrants attracted by gold. In 1856 Victoria restricted the entry of Chinese. Eventually, the exclusion of all but European settlers gave the colonies a “White Australia” policy that was defended vigorously whenever there appeared to be new threats to Australian jobs or culture. On occasion it seemed that Queensland, which began to import Polynesian laborers (called Kanakas) for sugarcane plantations in the 1860s, might remain at odds with the other colonies, but it eventually conformed, and the White Australia policy provided an emotional link among the colonists.

Economic Controversy.

In the 1860s the goldfields began to decline. Although wool exports kept the colonies fairly prosperous, colonial debate soon centered on the role of government in the economy. In particular, railroad construction, due to costs and the absence of internal market centers, became a government activity. In 1866 Victoria, followed by South Australia and Tasmania, adopted a policy of high tariffs on imported goods in order to protect its own small industries and markets. New South Wales (and Queensland to a lesser extent) continued to stay with a free-trade policy.

Throughout the 1870s and '80s, the arguments over free trade versus protection divided the press, the political parties, and the colonies. This, together with the continuing jealousies among them, hindered any significant attempts at cooperation and possible union among the six colonies until the 1890s.

Treatment of Aborigines.

Phillip's initial settlement at Sydney brought him into contact with Australian aborigines, many of whom used the surrounding lands as their campsites and hunting domains. Only a few major confrontations took place between the colonists and the indigenous population in the first decade. With the settling of Van Diemen's Land, however, aboriginal communities began to be destroyed on a large scale. Unable to overcome colonial arms and fears, and despite the official British policy of protection, the 5000 aborigines of the island were then reduced to a mere handful. On the mainland, where the graziers sought lands for their sheep runs, the aboriginal communities of hunters were forced to retreat into the drier interior.

In principle, the official colonial policy throughout the 19th century was to treat the aborigines as equals, with the intention of eventually converting them to Christianity and European civilization. Gov. Macquarie even established a school for aboriginal children. Such acts, however, stressing good intentions, were infrequently supported and always underfinanced. In fact, moving from a policy of protection to one of punishment was typical of the early colonial government.

In the 1830s and '40s, as the pastoral frontier pushed inland, some aborigines were employed on sheep stations, and others were used for police patrols, but even some active church efforts to serve and educate the aborigines did not stabilize race relations. Although there were individual exceptions, Australian colonists in the 19th century generally assumed that aboriginal culture would die out. On the local and colonial levels, the neglect of that culture was often accompanied by segregational practices that prohibited aboriginal entry into colonial life.

Forced to survive on even scantier supplies of food, the aborigines were steadily reduced in number. By the 20th century they had major tribal homes only in the Northern Territory, Queensland, and New South Wales. Not until the 1950s did their population begin to inch back to its pre-European level (about 200,000) and the government begin to review and correct past treatment.

Cultural Life in the 19th Century.

The rapid increase of Australia's population from 1830 to 1860 contributed to the growth of the six capital cities. Unable to support dense settlements within their interior, the colonies became increasingly urbanized around the initial points of colonization. With the decline of gold mining in Victoria and New South Wales in the 1860s, even the prospectors drifted to the cities. By the end of the century, Sydney and Melbourne were among the world's largest cities, even though Australia as a whole still had a small population.

Each capital served as the major port for its respective colony. Perceiving others as rivals, each city—and colony—tended to emphasize its own identity. Contacts between individual colonies were secondary to their ties with Britain, and rivalries among them were common; thus, Victoria and New South Wales each used a different gauge for their railroads. (Standardization was begun only in the 1960s.)

All the colonies, however, shared a culture that was heavily influenced by the capital cities. In the 1850s it was merchants and professionals who agitated for political reform and the making of new constitutions. Small urban manufacturers and early trade union leaders aided in the formation of cabinet governments and the passage of legislation favorable to the urban populations. Following the lead of New South Wales, the colonial political systems tended to keep the graziers and other families of wealth from controlling colonial life. Wool and the ever occurring mineral discoveries nevertheless provided the economic base on which that way of life was based.

Enjoying mid-century prosperity, Sydney and Melbourne set the pace in cultural activities. Each founded a university patterned after Oxford-Cambridge and undertook major efforts in building museums, art galleries, and stately homes for the wealthier classes. Sporting events, especially cricket matches and soccer games, complemented the activities of clubs and societies. Joined by Adelaide, with its even stronger streak of British liberalism, the three cities succeeded in gaining free, compulsory primary educational systems for the colonies by the 1860s. Each city also had several major newspapers that championed its colony's uniqueness.

Despite intense loyalty to Britain, the colonists soon began to romanticize their frontier of sheep shearer, farmhand, and miner. The image was that of an individual struggling against authority as well as the environment. By the 1880s and '90s folktales and ballads were a major part of Australia's popular culture. Even earlier, the distinctive Australian slang had come into being as another variant of English.

Although British authors remained far more popular than Australian writers, colonial contributions to the arts kept pace with the increasing economic and social development of the six colonies. Two writers, Catherine Helen Spence (1825–1910), author of Clara Morison (1854), and Marcus Clarke (1846–81), author of For the Term of His Natural Life (1874), produced distinctive novels that dealt with local themes.

Science, philosophy, and history were other fields in which Australians began to excel, and activity in these areas fitted in well with Britain's leadership at that time. By the 1860s, Australians had also completed the initial exploration of the interior, including the deserts in the Northern Territory.

Movement Toward Federation.

Federation of the Australian colonies came late and without the display of nationalism that characterized similar movements elsewhere. The idea of unification appeared as early as 1847 in proposals by Earl Grey (1802–94), Britain's colonial secretary. In the 1850s John Dunmore Lang (1799–1878), a Scottish Presbyterian cleric in New South Wales, formed the Australian League to campaign for a united Australia. Conferences among colonial governments in the 1860s also considered closer cooperation and unification. With the formation of the Dominion of Canada in 1867, British officials began to expect a similar effort among Australians. No plan, however, received serious attention due to the intense rivalries among colonial societies.

In the 1880s the prospect of European—as distinct from British—colonization of the Pacific triggered fears of Australia's lack of defense. Queensland, anticipating German moves, claimed Papua on New Guinea in 1883 but, unable to support this claim, had to urge Britain to rule the territory and to claim other islands. Concerned that they might not be able to direct British policy in their interests and aware of the emergence of new powers in Europe, the Australian colonies created a Federal Council in 1885, but the refusal of New South Wales to participate doomed this effort at unification.

Other developments during the 1880s, however, served to keep the idea of unification alive. Debate over the White Australia policy demonstrated the need for uniform immigration rules. As more Australian workers unionized, trade unions became more centralized, suggesting the attractiveness of a single economic and political system. Unstable economic conditions and outright depression by 1892 contributed to the development of labor parties that could defend worker interests. It was evident to the laborites that unification would permit the standardization of labor laws.

New South Wales began the movement to replace the Federal Council in 1889, when its premier, Henry Parkes (1815–96), announced that the colony would support a new form of federalism. A conference in Sydney in 1891 laid the basis for a constitutional convention, which did not, however, meet until 1897–98. Further disputes followed, but eventually all six colonies approved. The Commonwealth of Australia was accordingly approved by the British Parliament in 1900 and became a reality on Jan. 1, 1901.

The federal constitution reflected both British and American practices; that is, parliamentary government, with cabinets responsible to a bicameral legislature was established, but only specifically delegated powers were given to the government. The new House of Representatives, like the British House of Commons, was based on popular representation, but the new Senate, like its American counterpart, preserved the representation of the colonies, which now became states. As neither Sydney nor Melbourne was an acceptable federal capital, the Australian Capital Territory was established (1911) for a new capital, Canberra; based on the city plan of Washington, D.C., Canberra in fact became the seat of the government in 1927.

THE COMMONWEALTH

Central to the history of Australia in the 20th century has been the development of both a national government and a national culture. Commonwealth governments, led by such architects of federation as Alfred Deakin (1856–1919), quickly established a protective tariff to foster internal development, designed procedures for setting minimum wages in industry, and preserved the white immigration policy. Nevertheless, Australians tended to retain their old colonial identities, and the political parties at the national level tended to be loosely defined.

Identity Forged by War.

World War I (1914–18), much more than federation itself, began the transformation of Australian life from that of six colonies to a united state aware of its new identity. Responding to the allied call for troops, Australia sent more than 330,000 volunteers, who took part in some of the bloodiest battles. Suffering a casualty rate higher than that of many other participants, Australia became increasingly conscious of its contribution to the war effort. At Gallipoli, an Australian and New Zealand Army Corps tried in vain to launch a drive on the Turkish forces in the Dardanelles. The date of the fateful landing, April 25, 1915, became equated with Australia's coming of age, and it has remained the country's most significant day of public homage.

In 1915 William M. (“Billy”) Hughes (1864–1952) became prime minister and leader of the Labor party. Representing Australia at councils in London, Hughes personified Australian energies. When he failed to carry the electorate in two attempts to supplement volunteers with conscripted men, Hughes remained in power by forming the Nationalist party, much to the annoyance of his Labor colleagues. He attended the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, acquiring German New Guinea as a mandated territory and establishing Australia's right to enter the League of Nations. In the meantime, the war effort had brought the country to a new level of prosperity, having encouraged development of manufacturing industries and more exports of foodstuffs, minerals, and wool. The powers designated to the federal government in the constitution proved sufficient to allow a strong central government.

Interwar Years.

After an internal backlash within the Nationalist party forced the retirement of Hughes in 1923, Stanley M. Bruce became prime minister. The Country party, founded in 1919 as a patriotic, conservative movement to protect the interests of farmers and graziers, joined the Nationalist coalition, although it kept its own identity. The chief opponent of the coalition was Labor, which had to redefine its social policies. To maintain wartime levels of production and expansion the government sought to build up the basic industries, but the depression of 1929 cut deeply into the health of the Australian economy, increasing public and private debts at a time of massive unemployment.

Recovery from the depression, led from 1929 to 1931 by James H. Scullin (1876–1953) and the Labor party, was extremely uneven. Disagreement on government policy broke Labor again in 1931, and for the rest of the 1930s, the United Australia party, composed of former Nationalists and disenchanted Laborites, held the reins of power. It was led by Joseph A. Lyons (1879–1939).

From its first assumption of responsibility in foreign affairs, Australia had been guided by its cultural and political ties with Britain. Emphasis was therefore placed on following Britain's leadership in solving the problems of the depression. Chief among these was an attempt to redirect more trade between Britain and the dominions. As early as the 1920s, however, Japan and the U.S. were among Australia's best customers for its wool crop. Against its own interests, but motivated in part by fear, Australia sought to reestablish British trade at the expense of its relations with Japan. In the League of Nations and within the British Commonwealth, Australian governments also tended to support appeasement and other policies in an effort to prevent war with the Fascist powers.

World War II.

When war came again in Europe in 1939, Australia dispatched its small armed forces to assist in Britain's defense. After the Pacific war between Japan and the U.S. broke out in 1941 and Britain was unable to provide sufficient support for Australia's defense, the new Labor government of John Curtin (1885–1945) sought alliance with the U.S. Until the liberation of the Philippines, U.S. Gen. Douglas MacArthur and his staff used Australia for their base of operations. Although casualties were lighter than in World War I, Australians were more psychologically affected because of their fears of a Japanese invasion. Again Australian industry was transformed by the needs of war. The economy was redirected toward manufacturing, and heavy industries ringed the capital cities. Postwar development built further on the foundations established during the war.

Prime Minister Curtin died in 1945, but the new Labor government under Joseph B. Chiefley (1885–1951) strengthened Australia's relationship with the U.S. in the ANZUS pact for mutual assistance (with New Zealand as a third partner). As a charter member of the UN, Australia also agreed to the decolonization of the islands in the Pacific, including the preparation of Papua New Guinea for independence (achieved in 1975).

The Menzies Era.

In 1949 Robert Menzies became prime minister, ushering in a long era of political stability. During the war, the old United Australian party had disintegrated. In its stead arose the Liberal party, which attracted those who opposed Labor's internal policies. Menzies, prime minister until 1966, gave Australia centralized and personal leadership. He stressed the sentimental linkage with the British crown but took more active interest than his predecessors in Pacific and South Asian affairs. Under the Colombo Plan, Asians began to study in Australian institutions. By 1966 the White Australia policy was discarded, and the entry of immigrants has since been based on criteria other than race.

Militarily, Australia fulfilled its commitment to the Western alliance by fighting in the Korean War (1950–53), participating in the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization from 1954 until its dissolution in 1977, and fighting in the Vietnam War as an ally of the U.S. Meanwhile, Australia adjusted its domestic and foreign policies as well to recognize its growing ties with Japan.

Time of Uncertainties.

From 1966 to 1972, the Liberal party, with the assistance of the Country party, provided several prime ministers who sought to extend the Menzies era, but in 1972, uniting after years of internal disputes, the Labor party under Gough Whitlam (1916–    ) again came to power. Whitlam's plans for increased social services, however, were in conflict with both the traditional rights of the states and declining economic prosperity; the Liberal-Country coalition was returned to power under Malcolm Fraser in 1975. He reinstated the policies followed by the earlier Liberal party governments.

Fraser's coalition survived the 1980 election with a much reduced majority. Further shaken by defections from Liberal party ranks and by foreign trade scandals, Fraser suffered a sharp defeat in the elections of March 1983. His Labor successor, Bob Hawke, sought to promote labor management cooperation and stimulate the economy; his foreign policy was staunchly pro-American. Labor retained its majorities in the elections of December 1984, July 1987, and March 1990.

Controversies of the 1990s.

In December 1991, with Australia mired in recession and Hawke's popularity waning, Labor chose his former treasury minister, Paul Keating, as party leader and prime minister. Pledging to change Australia to a federal republic, Keating led Labor to victory in the March 1993 election. Three years later, however, a Liberal-National party coalition swept into power, and Liberal leader John Howard became prime minister. Howard, a monarchist, nevertheless supported the calling of a constitutional convention to debate the future of Australia's government. In February 1998, convention delegates, meeting in Canberra, voted to replace the British monarch with an Australian president as head of state. In October, after a campaign that centered on economic issues, Howard's coalition retained power by a diminished majority.

Australia led an international peacekeeping force into East Timor in September 1999. In a November referendum, a proposal to reconstitute Australia as a republic was defeated; the plan, which called for a ceremonial president to be chosen by Parliament, drew opposition both from monarchists and from those who favored a directly elected head of state. A new preamble to the constitution that would have honored the contributions of Australia's indigenous peoples also failed to win majority support.

  Howard won his third and fourth terms in 2001 and 2004, respectively. During his tenure he has overseen Australia's growing role in world affairs and international economic trade. In 2003 he supported the U.S.-led opposition to the Saddam Hussein regime by committing troops to the war in Iraq (see Persian Gulf Wars).  

Australia was ranked first out of ten countries in a 2005 survey (conducted by the Seattle-based American firm Global Market Insite) that assessed countries' appeal in areas such as tourism, exports, governance, investment and immigration, culture and heritage, and people. Deemed to be a geologically safe place to securely store nuclear waste, Australia was among several countries proposed by the UN International Atomic Energy Agency in its final recommendations (February 2005) as potential international nuclear waste repositories. As in the past, the Australian federal government was opposed to such a proposal, with parliaments in South Australia, Western Australia, and the Northern Territory passing legislation against the dumping of international nuclear waste. L.C.D., LESLIE C. DULY, M.A., Ph.D.

For further information on this topic, see the Bibliography, sections 833. Australian literature, 1248. Australia, 1250. Southwest Pacific area.