one of the Middle Atlantic states of the U.S., bordered on the N by the Canadian provinces of Ontario and Québec; on the E by Vermont, Massachusetts, and Connecticut; on the SE by the Atlantic Ocean; on the S by New Jersey and Pennsylvania; and on the W by Pennsylvania and Ontario. Several boundaries are formed by bodies of water, including Lake Ontario and the Saint Lawrence R., in the N; Lake Champlain and the Poultney R., in the NE; the Hudson and Delaware rivers, in the SE; and Lake Erie and the Niagara R., in the W.

New York entered the Union on July 26, 1788, as the 11th of the original 13 states. New York has long been a leader in the political, cultural, and economic life of the U.S. Despite economic difficulties in the 1970s and '80s, mainly in New York City and other urban areas, the state still ranks among the U.S. leaders in such important sectors as manufacturing, commerce, foreign trade, communications, and finance. It is the birthplace of four U.S. presidents—Martin Van Buren, Millard Fillmore, Theodore Roosevelt, and Franklin D. Roosevelt. Others, such as Presidents Grover Cleveland and Chester A. Arthur, spent most of their lives in the state. New York, named in the 1660s for the duke of York, later James II of England, is called the Empire State.

LAND AND RESOURCES

New York, with an area of 141,089 sq km (54,475 sq mi), is the 27th largest state in the U.S.; 0.8% of its land area is owned by the federal government. The mainland portion of New York is shaped roughly like a right triangle; Long Island forms an extension in the SE. The extreme dimensions of the mainland are about 515 km (about 320 mi) from E to W and about 500 km (about 310 mi) from N to S; Long Island extends about 195 km (about 120 mi) from E to W. Elevations begin at sea level, along the Atlantic Ocean in the SE, and range up to 1629 m (5344 ft), atop Mt. Marcy in the NE. The average elevation is 305 m (1000 ft). The coastline measures 204 km (127 mi).

Physical Geography.

New York's geography is diverse, encompassing seven major regions. The Saint Lawrence Lowland region, in the N, is made up of a narrow lowland corridor along the St. Lawrence R. plus an area bordering Lake Champlain. The terrain is flat to gently rolling and becomes hillier to the S. Most of the region is underlain by sandstones and limestones and has a mixture of limy and acidic soils.

The Adirondack Upland in NE New York takes in about one-quarter of the state. Much of it is rugged, and many peaks, including Mt. Marcy, rise to more than 1220 m (more than 4000 ft). The oldest and some of the hardest rocks in the state underlie this upland. Soils in the region are generally thin, stony, and acidic.

The Eastern Great Lakes Lowland region, bordering Lakes Erie and Ontario, is generally flat close to the lakes and somewhat rolling to hilly farther away. Between Rochester and Syracuse are thousands of drumlins—low hills shaped somewhat like eggs—formed by the glaciers that once covered the region. The lowland is underlain by sedimentary rocks, mainly limestone, sandstone, and shale. Resistant strata in the southward-dipping layers have produced a series of E to W escarpments in the region. Niagara Falls was formed where the Niagara R. plunges over one of the escarpments. Soils of the region are generally limy and are quite fertile.

Occupying nearly half of the state, the Appalachian Plateau region, in the S, has three main divisions. The Catskill Mts., with elevations ranging to about 1280 m (about 4200 ft), form the E part of the region. In central New York is the lowest part, with deep valleys formed by glaciers. Here are the famous Finger Lakes. To the W, the plateau is higher, although cut by deep valleys. The Appalachian Plateau is underlain by sedimentary rocks, principally sandstone, shale, and limestone, and by extensive salt deposits. Soils tend to be deep and acidic; in the major river valleys are rich alluvial soils.

The Hudson-Mohawk Lowlands region is in the central and E parts of New York. Between the Appalachian Plateau and the New England Upland region is the narrow Hudson Valley. Near its S end the lowlands extend SW through the Wallkill Valley. The Mohawk Valley lies NW of the Hudson, mainly between the Adirondacks and the Appalachian Plateau. At the extreme NW of the region is an isolated upland with an elevation of about 610 m (about 2000 ft), the Tug Hill Plateau, located between the Adirondacks and the Eastern Great Lakes Lowland. Geologically, the upland is an outlier of the Appalachian Plateau with similar sedimentary rocks. Soils in the Hudson-Mohawk Lowlands vary from the fertile alluvial deposits found in the river valleys to limy, moderately fertile soils that developed on glacial till.

Three main subdivisions make up the New England Upland region. The Taconic Mts. lie along New York's E border. Farther to the S, the spectacular Hudson Highlands extend SW across the Hudson R. The third subdivision is composed of the crystalline Manhattan hills, which are relatively low and make up most of Westchester Co. and Manhattan Island.

Long Island and Staten Island represent most of New York's share of the Atlantic Coastal Plain. The N part of Long Island is composed of low hills rising to about 90 m (about 300 ft), and in the S is a low, flat plain. Soils tend to be sandy and lacking in natural fertility.

Rivers and Lakes.

New York has many rivers and lakes. The Great Lakes–St. Lawrence Basin drains much of W and central New York, including the Finger Lakes, the Tug Hill Plateau, and parts of the Adirondacks, plus the extreme N part of the state. Besides the St. Lawrence, some of the better known rivers in this area are the Genesee, Black, Niagara, and Oswego. The Hudson R. drains parts of the Adirondacks and areas E and W of the river. Its main tributary is the Mohawk. The Allegheny R. and a few other streams drain SW New York. The central part of the state S of the Finger Lakes is drained by the Susquehanna R. and its tributaries, such as the Chemung, Cohocton, Chenango, and Unadilla rivers. The Catskill Mts. are drained principally by the Delaware R. and its tributaries. Picturesque waterfalls are found along several of New York's rivers. The best known is Niagara Falls. The upper Hudson R. and the Genesee R. form several smaller falls.

New York contains a large number of lakes, many of which are frequented by summer vacationers. Three large lakes—Champlain, Erie, and Ontario—are only partly in the state. Wholly within New York are Lake Oneida and the Finger Lakes, near Syracuse; the Saranac lakes, Lake Placid, Blue Mountain Lake, Cranberry Lake, Lake George, Raquette Lake, and Tupper Lake, all in the Adirondacks; and Chautauqua Lake, in the SW. In addition to these natural bodies of water, New York contains several large artificial reservoirs, notably in the Catskill Mts.

Climate.

New York's climate is humid continental, reflecting its position in the belt of the mid-latitude westerlies. The considerable climatic variation within the state results mainly from differences of terrain, elevation, and proximity to large water bodies. In general, the SE part of the state has the highest mean monthly temperature, and the uplands of the NE the lowest. Mean annual precipitation ranges from about 890 to 1145 mm (about 35 to 45 in) in most parts of New York and is relatively evenly distributed over the course of a year. Most of the state receives abundant snowfall. East of Lake Erie and along Lake Ontario are belts of especially heavy snowfall, and the Tug Hill Plateau receives some of the greatest annual accumulations of snow of any area in the U.S. east of the Rocky Mts. The recorded temperature in New York has ranged from –46.7˚ C (–52˚ F), in 1934 at Stillwater Reservoir and in 1979 at Old Forge, both in the Adirondacks, to 42.2˚ C (108˚ F), in 1926 at Troy in the E. Aside from thunderstorms and heavy snowfalls, New York is struck by few damaging storms. Hurricanes occasionally strike Long Island and the SE section of the state's mainland.

Plants and Animals.

About 53% of the land area of New York is covered with forest, most of it regrowth on cutover land. Northern hardwoods, including birch, sugar and red maple, and basswood, intermixed with conifers such as hemlock and white pine, are characteristic of much of the Appalachian Plateau forests. In the SE, oaks are dominant, and in the higher Adirondacks spruce and fir dominate, often mixed with northern hardwoods such as ash. Among the many wild flowers of New York are azalea and other rhododendrons, black-eyed Susan, buttercups, violets, orchids, and mountain laurel.

New York's larger mammals include white-tailed deer and black bear, the former widespread over the state and the latter living mainly in the Adirondacks and the Appalachian Plateau region. Among the state's more common small mammals are beaver, rabbit, woodchuck, fox, raccoon, weasel, squirrel, and chipmunk. Game birds include pheasant, grouse, partridge, quail, and wild duck. Some other more common birds are robins, sparrows, warblers, crows, bluebirds, and woodpeckers. Varieties of freshwater fish include black bass, pickerel, pike, whitefish, crappie, and trout. Among the saltwater fish are marlin, tuna, bluefish, striped bass, and flounder. The Long Island coast is noted for clams.

Mineral Resources.

New York has varied mineral resources, mainly nonmetallic. These include limestone, found principally S of Lake Ontario, in the Hudson-Mohawk Lowlands, and in the St. Lawrence and Black River valleys; salt, which underlays much of central and W New York; gypsum, found S of Lake Ontario; talc, located in the N; slate, found at the Vermont border; garnets, deposited in the S Adirondacks; clay, situated especially in the Hudson Valley; emery, located in the S; and stone and sand and gravel, found in many parts of the state. Natural-gas deposits are in W New York, and small amounts of petroleum are in the SW. Metallic minerals occurring in New York include lead, zinc, iron, and silver, situated mainly in and near the Adirondack Mts.        H.H.F., HOWARD H. FLIERL, Ph.D.

POPULATION

According to the 2000 census, New York had 18,976,457 inhabitants, an increase of 5.5% over 1990. In 2000 the average population density was 401.9 people per sq mi of land area. Nearly half the state's population was concentrated in the New York City metropolitan area. Whites made up 67.9% of the state population and blacks 15.9%; more blacks live in New York (about 3.0 million). Additional population groups included 82,461 American Indians, 1,044,976 Asians, and 8818 Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islanders. (These figures do not include the 3.1% of the population who reported more than one race.) A total of 2,867,583 state residents, or 15.1% of the total population, were of Hispanic background; many of these were persons of Puerto Rican origin living in the New York City metropolitan area. The state's largest cities were New York, the largest city in the U.S.; Buffalo; Rochester; Yonkers; and Syracuse. Albany is the capital.

A 2000 survey found that Roman Catholics formed the largest single religious group in the state, accounting for nearly 40% of the total population and about two-thirds of all religious adherents. Numerous Protestant denominations were represented, including the United Methodist Church (2.1% of the population), American Baptist Churches in the USA (1.1%), and Episcopal Church (1.1%). Jews comprised an estimated 8.7% of the population-the highest of any state-and were concentrated in the New York metropolitan region. The Muslim population was placed at 1.2% in the 2000 survey, but some estimates were significantly higher.

In 2000, about 88% of New Yorkers lived in areas considered urban under the current, broadened, government definition.

EDUCATION AND CULTURAL ACTIVITY

New York's numerous institutions of higher education, its fine museums, its noted performing arts groups, and its communications media have made the state, and particularly New York City, one of the most important cultural centers in the world.

Education.

The New York legislature passed a bill in 1784 creating a board of regents to oversee education in the state. In 1812 legislation was passed to establish a statewide system of public elementary schools, and in 1867 such schools were made tuition-free. By the 1860s the state also had a number of free high schools. In the early 2000s, New York public schools each year enrolled a total of about 2 million elementary school pupils and close to 900,000 secondary school students. In addition, about 400,000 students annually attended private elementary and secondary schools.

The first institution of higher education in the state was King's College (now Columbia University), in New York City, which was incorporated under a royal charter in 1754. In the late 1980s New York had some 300 public and private institutions of higher education with a combined annual enrollment of about 1.1 million students. Besides Columbia University, which encompasses Barnard College, well-known colleges included New York University, the Juilliard School, Rockefeller University, Yeshiva University, Pratt Institute, Fordham University, Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and Art, St. John's University, and the New School for Social Research, in New York City; the U.S. Military Academy, in West Point; Cornell University and Ithaca College, in Ithaca; Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, in Troy; Skidmore College, in Saratoga Springs; Bard College, in Annandale-on-Hudson; Hamilton College, in Clinton; Hobart-William Smith Colleges, in Geneva; Colgate University, in Hamilton; Union College, in Schenectady; Vassar College, in Poughkeepsie; Syracuse University, in Syracuse; Canisius College, in Buffalo; Sarah Lawrence College, in Bronxville; Adelphi University, in Garden City; Hofstra University, in Hempstead; and the University of Rochester, in Rochester. Two public systems of higher education—the State University of New York and the City University of New York—have high enrollment.

Cultural Institutions.

New York City is the foremost cultural center of the U.S. Its most famous cultural institutions include the New-York Historical Society (1804), the Brooklyn Museum (1823), the American Museum of Natural History (1869), the Metropolitan Museum of Art (1870), the Cooper-Hewitt National Museum of Design (1897; affiliated with the Smithsonian Institution), the Jewish Museum (1904), the Frick Collection (1920), the Pierpont Morgan Library (1924), the Museum of Modern Art (1929), the Whitney Museum of American Art (1930), the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum (1937); the Studio Museum in Harlem (1967), the International Center of Photography (1974), and the George Gustav Heye Center (1993), part of the Smithsonian's National Museum of the American Indian. The New York Botanical Garden (1891), the New York Zoological Park, or Bronx Zoo (1899), and the Brooklyn Botanic Garden (1910), are also in the city.

Other major museums in the state include the Albright-Knox Art Gallery (1862), in Buffalo; the New York State Museum (1836), in Albany; the International Museum of Photography and Film (1949), in Rochester; the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum (1939), in Cooperstown; the Corning Museum of Glass (1951), in Corning; and the Hudson River Museum (1919), in Yonkers.

New York City's Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts (1956) is the home of such major groups as the Metropolitan Opera (1883), the New York City Opera (1944), the New York Philharmonic (1842), and the New York City Ballet (1948). Other well-known performing arts groups of the city include the American Ballet Theatre, the Dance Theatre of Harlem, the Brooklyn Philharmonic Symphony Orchestra, and numerous theatrical organizations, such as the Manhattan Theatre Club (1970), the New York Shakespeare Festival (1957), and the Negro Ensemble Company. In addition, the midtown section of Manhattan around Broadway is famous for its many theaters. The Buffalo Philharmonic (1934) and the Rochester Philharmonic (1922) are noted orchestras based outside New York City.

New York State has many important specialized and general libraries. Leading research centers include the New York Public Library (1895) and the Columbia University libraries, in New York City, and the Cornell University libraries, in Ithaca. The papers of President Franklin D. Roosevelt are housed in a library in Hyde Park. .

Historical Sites.

New York contains a wide range of historical sites. Among the historical homes found in the state are those of the political writer Thomas Paine, located in New Rochelle; the statesman Alexander Hamilton, in New York City; Chief Justice John Jay, in Mount Kisco; the women's rights advocate Susan B. Anthony, in Rochester; the writer Washington Irving, in Tarrytown; President Martin Van Buren, in Kinderhook; President Theodore Roosevelt, in New York City and in Oyster Bay; and President Franklin D. Roosevelt and his wife Eleanor Roosevelt, in Hyde Park. Other notable historical sites are Fort Stanwix National Monument, near Rome, and Saratoga National Historical Park, near Stillwater, both of which were scenes of important patriot successes against the British in 1777 during the American Revolution; and Castle Clinton National Monument, at the S tip of Manhattan Island, including the structure where approximately 8 million immigrants were processed for entrance into the U.S. from 1855 to 1892. The Statue of Liberty National Monument in New York Harbor encompasses Liberty and Ellis islands (the latter is historically associated with New York, but New Jersey holds sovereignty over most of the island). The Ellis Island Museum of Immigration (1990) is housed in the immigration station through which an estimated 20 million immigrants passed from 1892 to 1954. The famous Statue of Liberty is on Liberty Island.

Sports and Recreation.

New York's mountains, lakes, rivers, ocean beaches, and parks offer opportunities for outdoor activities such as hiking, camping, swimming, boating, fishing, hunting, and winter sports.

Famous Thoroughbred racetracks in the state are Aqueduct, in New York City; Belmont Park, in Elmont; and Saratoga Race Course, in Saratoga Springs. An automobile racetrack is in Watkins Glen. Madison Square Garden, in New York City, is a noted site for sports and entertainment events.

The state's professional sports teams include: the New York Yankees (baseball), the New York Mets (baseball), the New York Rangers (ice hockey), and the New York Knickerbockers (basketball) in New York City; the New York Islanders (ice hockey), in Uniondale; and the Buffalo Bills (football) and the Buffalo Sabres (ice hockey) in Buffalo. New York City's two professional football teams, the New York Jets and the New York Giants, use Giants Stadium in East Rutherford, N.J., as their home field.

Communications.

New York has a highly developed communications system, including numerous radio and television stations. The first radio station in the state, WGY in Schenectady, started broadcasting in 1922. WNBT (now WNBC-TV) in New York City, the first commercial television station in the U.S., went into operation in 1941. The three biggest U.S. television networks—ABC, CBS, and NBC—have their headquarters in New York City. The Gazette, which was New York's first newspaper, began publication in New York City in 1725. In the early 2000s New York had 59 daily newspapers, with a total daily paid circulation of about 6.8 million. The New York Times is one of the world's leading newspapers. Other influential dailies include the New York Daily News, New York Post (one of the oldest newspapers in the U.S.), and Wall Street Journal (which has a circulation of over 2 million, the second-highest of any U.S. newspaper, after USA Today)—all published in New York City; Newsday, published in Nassau Co.; the Times Union, published in Albany; the Buffalo News; the Democrat & Chronicle, published in Rochester; and the Herald-Journal, published in Syracuse. New York City also is the leading book and magazine publishing center in the U.S.

In the early 2000s about 60% of the state's households had computers and 53% had access to the Internet.

GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

New York is governed under a constitution adopted in 1894 and put into effect in 1895, as amended. Three earlier constitutions had been adopted in 1777, 1822, and 1846. Amendments to the constitution may be proposed by the state legislature or by a constitutional convention. To become effective, an amendment must be approved by a majority of persons voting on the issue in an election.

Executive.

The chief executive of New York is a governor, who is popularly elected to a term of four years and who may be reelected any number of times. The same regulations apply to the lieutenant governor, who succeeds the governor should the latter resign, die, or be removed from office. Other elected state officials include the attorney general and comptroller.

Legislature.

The bicameral New York legislature is made up of a senate and an assembly. The 62 members of the senate and the 150 members of the assembly are popularly elected to 2-year terms.

Judiciary.

New York's highest tribunal, the court of appeals, is made up of a chief judge and six associate judges. All are appointed by the governor, with the consent of the senate, to serve 14-year terms and may not serve past the age of 70. New York's intermediate appellate courts, the four appellate divisions of the supreme court, are made up of a total of 55 permanent judges, who are chosen from among the members of the supreme court. New York's major trial court, the supreme court, includes 346 judges elected to 14-year terms. Each county, except for the five that make up New York City, has a county court. New York City is served by a criminal court and a civil court.

Local Government.

In the early 2000s, New York had 62 counties (including 5 in New York City), 616 municipalities, 929 towns and townships, 683 school districts, and 1135 special districts. Counties outside of New York City are governed by a board of supervisors or by a county legislature; in some counties, an elected county executive has considerable power. Under a revised charter approved by New York City voters in November 1989, the city is governed by a mayor, city council, and planning commission; presidents are elected to govern each of the five boroughs, or counties, that make up the city. Such regional bodies as the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey and the Metropolitan Transportation Authority have influence over aspects of local affairs in New York City.

National Representation.

Based on the 2000 census and effective with the election of 2002, New York elects 2 senators and 29 representatives to the U.S. Congress. The state has 31 electoral votes in presidential elections.

Politics.

New Yorkers have played a prominent role in national politics since the founding of the U.S. Democratic strength is concentrated in New York City and other major urban centers, while Republicans draw most of their support from other areas of the state. Increasingly important as a swing bloc are the voters living in the suburbs of New York City. Although New York's share of electoral votes has declined from a peak of 47 in the 1930s and '40s, the state remains a major prize in presidential elections, with Democrats holding a decisive edge in recent years. National political figures from New York include Governors Alfred E. Smith, Herbert H. Lehman, Thomas E. Dewey, Nelson Rockefeller, and Mario Cuomo (1932–    ), as well as New York City mayors Fiorello H. La Guardia and Rudolph W. Giuliani and Senators Robert F. Wagner (1910–91), Jacob Javits (1904–86), Daniel Patrick Moynihan, and Hillary Rodham Clinton.

ECONOMY

New York was the preeminent U.S. state in commerce and manufacturing from the early 19th century until the late 1960s, when it began to be surpassed by California; in the 1990s it continued to be a leading component of the U.S. economy and remained first in many branches of economic activity. The New York City area, the state's most important economic hub, contained the world headquarters of some of the nation's biggest corporations, was one of the world's principal centers of finance and international trade, and had highly influential broadcasting, publishing, and advertising industries. Despite a decline in the New York City region, manufacturing remained a preeminent activity throughout the state. Government, services, trade, finance, transport, and farming were also important.

Agriculture.

Although heavily urbanized and industrialized, New York is still an important agricultural area. Until late in the 19th century, New York led the nation in the production of both grain and butter. Today, the state's major agricultural activities center on the dairy and cattle industry, apple orchards, maple syrup production, onions, beets, potatoes, and viniculture.

New York's net farm income in 2003 was estimated at $597 million; sales of livestock and livestock products account for two-thirds of the income and the sale of crops for the remainder. The state has about 36,000 farms, which have an average size of about 85 ha (210 acres). Dairying is the principal agricultural pursuit in New York, and dairy farms are located in most parts of the state. Sales of beef cattle constitute another significant source of farm receipts, and considerable income also is derived from the sale of hogs, chickens, chicken eggs, turkeys, ducks (raised principally on Long Island), and sheep. The leading crops produced in New York include hay, corn, wheat, oats, potatoes, onions, lettuce, snap beans, tomatoes, and cabbage. In addition, the Finger Lakes region and Chautauqua Co. are important producers of wine grapes, and the SE shore of Lake Erie and the plain adjacent to Lake Ontario are well known as fruit-growing regions.

Forestry.

Forest-related industries contribute about $4 billion annually to the New York economy. More than half of the state is covered with woodland. About three-quarters of the timber cut each year is made up of hardwoods. The wood harvest is used mainly for furniture, in the construction of buildings, and for the production of paper.

Fishing.

Although not noted as a fishing state, New York ranks high among the states in value of the annual catch, which was estimated at $46 million in 2004. Most of the commercial fishing takes place in Long Island Sound. The principal species taken include flounder, whiting, porgy, tuna, tilefish, swordfish, clams, oysters, and lobsters.

Mining.

New York's yearly mineral output in the early 2000s was valued at around $1 billion. The most important minerals produced include stone, salt, sand and gravel, and natural gas. New York ranks among the leading states in the production of emery; garnet; salt; talc, soapstone, and pyrophyllite; and wollastonite. Other mineral products include zinc, petroleum, lead, silver, clay, and gypsum.

Manufacturing.

New York remains one of the leading industrial states of the U.S., although the manufacturing sector has diminished in importance in recent decades. Manufacturing accounted for only about 8% of the annual gross state product in 2003, down from nearly 20% in 1980. New York manufacturing establishments employed about 600,000 persons in 2003; the annual value added by manufacture was about $80 billion. The chief types of fabricated goods are printed materials, precision instruments, electronic equipment, and industrial machinery. New York is the leading state in producing printed materials, such as periodicals and books. The New York City area is the leading printing center, but major plants also are located in such cities as Binghamton, Buffalo, Elmira, and Schenectady. Precision instruments and related products include cameras and films, optical and medical equipment, and measuring devices. Rochester is a noted center for producing photographic and optical equipment; other centers of instrument production include Buffalo and New York City. Industrial machinery manufactured in the state includes engines and turbines, refrigeration and heating equipment, machine tools, and office equipment. New York is well-known for developing and producing electric and electronic equipment. Electrical products include motors, generators, lighting equipment, and communications equipment. New York City, Rochester, Buffalo, Schenectady, and Long Island are major centers of these industries.

New York is an important source of other manufactured goods. New York City is a leading U.S. producer of clothing, especially women's apparel, and Rochester and Buffalo also have important clothing industries. The Binghamton area produces computers and navigation and guidance equipment. Buffalo has iron and steel and flour mills. Aircraft are manufactured on Long Island, and motor-vehicle parts are produced in several areas of the state, especially Buffalo. Other major manufactures of New York include chemicals, pharmaceuticals, toiletries, processed food, beverages, fabricated metal, and paper, glass, rubber, and plastic goods.

Tourism.

In 2003 some 4.2 million people from overseas visited New York state, generating an estimated 89,000 jobs. Domestic visitors to New York State spent about $28 billion. New York contains many areas of natural beauty and interest for the tourist. These include Niagara Falls, the Thousand Islands of the St. Lawrence R., the gorges of the Genesee R., the Finger Lakes region, the beaches of Long Island, and the hiking trails and picturesque lakes of the Adirondack and Catskill mountains (much of which are in the Adirondack and Catskill forest preserves). Large numbers of people, many from foreign countries, also travel to New York City for sightseeing or to attend conventions. Many tourists visit such historical sites in the state as the home of President Theodore Roosevelt in Oyster Bay and the home of Franklin D. Roosevelt in Hyde Park. New York maintains 150 state parks and 34 state historic sites.

Transportation.

New York is served by an extensive system of transportation facilities. The state functions as a crossroads for traffic in the northeastern U.S. and as an entry and exit point for international commerce. New York has about 182,000 km (about 113,000 mi) of highways, including 2700 km (1700 mi) of interstate highways. The Governor Thomas E. Dewey Thruway is a major limited-access highway linking the New York City area with Albany, Syracuse, Rochester, and Buffalo. Among the noted vehicular bridges of the state are the George Washington Bridge, spanning the Hudson R. between New York City and New Jersey; the Brooklyn Bridge, built across the East R. between the New York City boroughs of Brooklyn and Manhattan; the Verrazano-Narrows Bridge, constructed across the Narrows channel between the boroughs of Brooklyn and Staten Island; and the Peace Bridge, joining Buffalo with Canada. Amtrak trains along the Washington-New York-Boston corridor served 9.4 million passengers in fiscal year 2006; another 900.000 traveled along the New York-Albany-Buffalo route. Busy commuter rail lines carry workers to and from New York City, which also has one of the world's largest subway systems. The state's first railroad made its initial run in 1831 between Albany and Schenectady. The Port of New York, which includes major facilities in New Jersey, is the second leading seaport of the U.S. (after New Orleans). The interior of the state is served by such important waterways as the Hudson R., the New York State Barge Canal System (which includes parts of the famous Erie Canal), and the St. Lawrence Seaway. Albany is an important port on the Hudson; Ogdensburg is a major port on the St. Lawrence R.; and Buffalo and Oswego are leading Great Lakes ports.

The state's busiest air terminals are John F. Kennedy International Airport and La Guardia Airport, both in New York City, and Greater Buffalo International Airport. The New York City metropolitan area is also served by Newark (N.J.) Liberty International Airport. Other major airports are in Albany, Newburgh, Rochester, and Syracuse.

Energy.

In the early 2000s electricity generating facilities in New York had an installed capacity of about 37 million kw and in 2003 produced 137.6 billion kwh of electricity, the sixth highest amount of the 50 states. About 52% of the electricity was generated from fossil fuels; hydroelectric power accounted for 18% and nuclear facilities for 30%. Major hydroelectric plants are on the Niagara and St. Lawrence rivers.       W.J.Y., WILLIAM J. YOUNG, M.S., Ph.D. .

HISTORY

The Indians who lived in the western and northern parts of what is now the state of New York before the coming of the Europeans were divided into two main groups: the Algonquian of the Hudson Valley and Long Island and the Iroquois in the western area. The Iroquois Confederacy was a highly organized political and military entity, originally consisting of the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca tribes; the Tuscaroras were admitted early in the 18th century.

The Colonial Period.

The Italian explorer Giovanni da Verrazano entered New York Bay in 1524, but European colonization did not begin until after the English navigator Henry Hudson claimed the area for the Netherlands in 1609. The Dutch West India Co. established settlements at Fort Orange (near present-day Albany) in 1624 and at New Amsterdam on the southern end of Manhattan Island two years later. In 1629, a charter of freedoms and exemptions was adopted as an inducement for settlement. The New Netherland colony, which suffered from Indian attacks and mismanagement in its early years, achieved a measure of peace and economic stability under Peter Stuyvesant, who governed it from 1647 to 1664. In the latter year it was seized by the English and was renamed New York in honor of its proprietor, James, duke of York, brother of King Charles II. James made New Jersey, which had been part of New Netherland, a separate colony and acquired eastern Long Island from Connecticut. After a brief Dutch reoccupation (1673–74), the colony returned to English control. When James became king as James II, he formed the short-lived Dominion of New England, uniting New England, New York, and New Jersey (1686). On receiving the news that James had been dethroned in 1688, the citizens of New York rebelled and named Jacob Leisler (1640–91) as governor. Although Leisler was hanged for treason when royal authority was reinstated in 1691, the representative assembly he established was thereafter retained as part of the colony's government. Subsequent governors sought to carry out crown and parliamentary decrees while the assembly managed to strengthen its control over purse strings.

Schenectady was destroyed by a French and Indian attack in 1690, and New York continued to be a battleground during the wars with the French and their Indian allies in the decades that followed. In the war of 1754–63 (see French and Indian War), the French formed a major base at Fort Ticonderoga on Lake Champlain and penetrated as far south as Lake George. Not until Lord Jeffrey Amherst ousted them from Ticonderoga and Crown Point in 1759 was New York secure from further French attacks. The Peace of 1763 ended the French presence and signaled a move into former Indian holdings in the Mohawk Valley and Great Lakes regions.

The American Revolution.

At the Stamp Act Congress held in New York in 1765, representatives of nine American colonies met to protest new taxes imposed by the British Parliament. When the New York legislature refused to provide housing and supplies to British military personnel in 1767, it was dissolved by act of Parliament; a newly elected legislature proved more cooperative. In the early 1770s a split developed between the radicals who opposed British rule and the mercantile aristocracy who remained loyal to the Crown. When Massachusetts rose in rebellion in April 1775, New York sent a volunteer force to aid the rebels. In October, the last royal governor, William Tryon (1729–88), fled to safety aboard a British warship.

On July 9, 1776, a new legislature approved the Declaration of Independence, and the former royal province became the state of New York. Nevertheless, by October of that year the British army had occupied New York City, Long Island, and lower Westchester Co. The city served as British military headquarters from then until the end of the Revolution. The British were less successful in their efforts to control the rest of the state. The surrender of Gen. John Burgoyne at Saratoga in 1777 was a major setback for them and helped bring France into the war on the American side. The upper Hudson River valley remained in patriot hands throughout the war, and the Hudson River itself was guarded by cannons at West Point. Benedict Arnold sought to reveal the plans of West Point in a plot aborted by the capture of his British accomplice Maj. John André, at Tarrytown in 1780.

New York in the New Nation.

At the war's conclusion, the state returned to agricultural pursuits and to developing its commercial activities. New York's determination to increase its use of the harbor area and the Hudson River shipping lanes led to friction with New Jersey, and its claim to Vermont caused a conflict with the residents of that area until Vermont became a state in 1790.

Opposition to ratification of the federal constitution developed in New York, but it was finally approved in July 1788. Under the new government, New York City became the first U.S. capital and the scene of George Washington's inauguration as president in 1789. Washington's first appointees included such distinguished New Yorkers as Alexander Hamilton and John Jay. Jay served as governor of New York from 1795 to 1801. Another New Yorker, Aaron Burr, served as vice-president under Thomas Jefferson.

Renewed naval warfare between Britain and France soon embroiled the U.S. Although New York shipping was affected by British and French depredations, western New York opposed the war with Britain that broke out in 1812 (see War of 1812), which once again made a battleground of the area along the Canadian border.

The Empire State.

After the War of 1812, Gov. De Witt Clinton, recognizing that a transportation link with the upper Ohio Valley was essential, pressed for construction of a canal across the state, from the confluence of the Hudson and Mohawk rivers west to Lake Erie. The state legislature authorized construction of the Erie Canal in 1817, and it was completed in 1825. A commercial and financial success, the canal provided the impetus for the rapid settlement and development of western New York by former New Englanders and by immigrants from Europe.

The opening of the West, increased maritime trade, and rapid industrialization soon made New York City the leading seaport in the nation. Between 1825 and the American Civil War, New York City emerged as the major manufacturing center in textiles, as the nation's cotton mart, and as the center for banking, imports, insurance, the stock exchange, and ready-made clothing. Also during this period transportation facilities developed rapidly; a network of turnpikes was introduced, and railroad lines were constructed that extended from New York City to Chicago. Social reformers Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott organized the first women's rights convention at Seneca Falls in 1848.

Economic growth encouraged immigration to New York from the countries of Ireland, Germany, and Canada. By the time of the Civil War, however, the number of immigrants had decreased, and business opportunities had increased. As a result of New York's close ties with the cotton market, popular sentiment opposed a war against the seceded Southern states. Although New Yorkers served and suffered in every major battle of the Civil War, the inauguration of a military draft led to the New York City draft riots of July 1863.

The decades following the Civil War brought an enormous expansion in population, economic power, and political influence. Railroad building spurred industrial growth, and financiers accumulated huge fortunes; at the same time, millions of immigrants streamed into New York City, often living and working in overcrowded and dangerous conditions. New York's Tammany Society became a national symbol of political corruption, inspiring repeated efforts at political reform. Between 1885 and 1933, three New York state governors became U.S. presidents: Grover Cleveland, Theodore Roosevelt, and Franklin D. Roosevelt.

Recent Developments.

Until the 1960s New York was the most populous state in the Union. In the 1970s and '80s, however, the state began to experience an economic decline. New York City in particular suffered from unemployment, chronic financial problems, decaying neighborhoods, and a declining population, although it remained the nation's center for stock exchange activities, advertising, banking and finance, and retail merchandising, and served as headquarters for many major national and international corporations. The city was also a major center for the publishing, fashion, and entertainment industries and for the arts in general.

Attica.

In September 1971, while Nelson Rockefeller was governor, New York's Attica Correctional Facility was the site of one of the bloodiest prison battles in U.S. history. The confrontation began when nearly 1300 inmates seized control of the facility, taking dozens of prison guards hostage; at least one guard died from injuries sustained during the takeover, and three prisoners were murdered, apparently by fellow inmates. When negotiations broke down, up to 1500 heavily armed state troopers and other law enforcement personnel stormed the prison, killing 29 convicts and 10 hostages in a fusillade of gunfire. Five years later, in an effort to bring closure to the controversial episode, Rockefeller's Democratic successor, Gov. Hugh L. Carey (1919–    ), pardoned seven of the inmates involved, commuted the sentence of another, and waived disciplinary proceedings against 20 law enforcement officers.

Economic rebound.

Elected governor in 1982, Mario Cuomo, also a Democrat, served 12 years in that office before losing his bid for a fourth term in 1994 to a Republican state senator, George E. Pataki (1945–    ), who was reelected in 1998. Like most of the rest of the U.S., the state enjoyed an economic resurgence during the 1990s, and New York City reaped enormous profits from the stock market boom during the second half of the decade. Reversing a long-term trend, the city grew in population between 1990 and 2000, although the populations of three upstate urban areas—Buffalo, Rochester, and Syracuse—continued to decline. In November 2000, Hillary Rodham Clinton, the first First Lady ever to run for federal office and a newcomer to the state, won election to the U.S. Senate.

Terrorist attacks.

New York was a target for terrorists in February 1993, when a powerful bomb blast in the basement of the World Trade Center in Lower Manhattan killed six people and resulted in about $600 million in property damage and other economic losses. When terrorists again struck the U.S. on Sept. 11, 2001, in a far more devastating blow (see also Hijacking; Terrorism), the brunt of the attack was borne by New York City, Within about 15 minutes of each other, two hijacked Boeing 767 aircraft separately struck each of the two 110-story twin towers of the World Trade Center, causing huge explosions and intense fires that weakened the towers' support systems and within two hours brought the towers down. The whole World Trade Center complex was destroyed, and several nearby buildings suffered heavy damage. The number of victims at Ground Zero, as the World Trade Center site became known, was more than 2700. Property damage and economic losses resulting from the attack were incalculable.

Along with New York City Mayor Giuliani and officials of the Federal Emergency Management Agency, Gov. Pataki played an important role in coordinating the cleanup operation and restoring access to Lower Manhattan. Reelected to a third term in 2002, Pataki declined to run again four years later. In the November 2006 elections, Attorney General Eliot Spitzer (1959– ), a Democrat who had earned a nationwide reputation by cracking down on investment fraud, coasted to victory in the governorship race, and Clinton easily won a second term as U.S. senator.       J.Ju., JACOB JUDD, M.A., Ph.D.

For further information on this topic, see the Bibliography, sections 1172. New York, geography, 1173. New York, history, 1174. Manhattan, 1175. New York City, history.