1492

Christopher Columbus and crew sighted land Oct. 12 in present-day Bahamas.

1497

John Cabot explored northeast coast to Delaware.

1513

Juan Ponce de León explored Florida coast.

1524

Giovanni da Verrazano led French expedition along coast from Carolina north to Nova Scotia; entered New York harbor.

1526

San Miguel de Guadalupe, first European settlement in what became U.S. territory, was established in the summer off S. Carolina coast; abandoned in Oct.

1539

Hernando de Soto landed in Florida May 28; crossed Mississippi River, 1541.

1540

Francisco Vásquez de Coronado explored Southwest north of Rio Grande. Hernando de Alarcón reached Colorado River; Don Garcia Lopez de Cardenas reached Grand Canyon. Others explored California coast.

1562

First French colony in what became U.S. territory was founded on Parris Island off S. Carolina coast; abandoned, 1564.

1565

St. Augustine, FL, founded Sept. 8 by Pedro Menéndez. Razed by Francis Drake, 1586.

1579

Francis Drake entered San Francisco Bay and claimed region for Britain.

1585

“Lost colony” sponsored by Sir Walter Raleigh was founded on Roanoke Island, off N. Carolina coast; settlers found to have vanished, 1590.

1587

Virginia Dare (on Roanoke Island) became first infant born in the Thirteen Colonies of English parents.

1607

Capt. John Smith and 105 cavaliers in 3 ships landed on Virginia coast, started first permanent English settlement in New World at Jamestown.

1609

Henry Hudson, English explorer of Northwest Passage, employed by Dutch, sailed into New York Harbor in Sept., and up Hudson to Albany. Samuel de Champlain explored Lake Champlain, to the north.

Spaniards settled Santa Fe, NM.

1619

House of Burgesses, first representative assembly in New World, elected July 30 at Jamestown, VA.

First black laborers—indentured servants—in English N. American colonies, landed by Dutch at Jamestown in Aug. Chattel slavery legally recognized, 1650.

1620

Pilgrims, Puritan separatists, left Plymouth, England, Sept. 16 on Mayflower; reached Cape Cod Nov. 19; 103 passengers landed Dec. 26 at Plymouth. Mayflower Compact, signed Nov. 11, was agreement to form a self-government. Half of colony died during harsh winter.

1624

Dutch colonies started in Albany and in New York area, where New Netherland was established in May.

1626

Peter Minuit bought Manhattan for Dutch West India Co. from Man-a-hat-a Indians during summer for goods valued at $24; named island New Amsterdam.

1630

Settlement of Boston established by Massachusetts colonists led by John Winthrop.

William Bradford began his chronicle History of the Plymouth Plantation; in the Mass. Bay Colony John Winthrop began The History of New England.

1634

Maryland founded as Catholic colony under charter to Lord Baltimore. Religious toleration granted 1649.

1635

Boston Latin School, oldest U.S. public school in continuous existence, founded Apr. 23.

1636

Roger Williams founded Providence, RI, in June, as a democratically ruled colony with separation of church and state. Charter granted, 1644.

Harvard College founded; oldest institution of higher learning in U.S.

1640

First book was printed in America, the so-called Bay Psalm Book.

1647

Liberal constitution drafted in Rhode Island.

First law in America providing for free compulsory basic education enacted in Massachusetts.

1660

British Parliament passed First Navigation Act Dec. 1, regulating colonial commerce to suit English needs.

1661

A version of the New Testament translated into Algonquian became the first Bible printed in the colonies.

1664

British troops Sept. 8 seized New Netherland from Dutch. Charles II granted New Netherland and city of New Amsterdam to brother, Duke of York; both renamed New York. Dutch recaptured colony 1673, but ceded it to Britain Nov. 10, 1674.

1670

Charles Town, South Carolina, was founded by English colonists in Apr.

1673

Jacques Marquette and Louis Jolliet reached the upper Mississippi and traveled down it.

Regular mail service on horseback was instituted Jan. 1 between New York and Boston.

1674

Future Salem witch trial judge Samuel Sewall began a renowned diary covering events through 1729.

1676

Nathaniel Bacon led planters against autocratic British Gov. Sir William Berkeley, burned Jamestown, VA, Sept. 19. Rebellion collapsed when Bacon died; 23 followers executed.

Bloody Indian war in New England ended Aug. 12. King Philip, Wampanoag chief, and Narragansett Indians killed.

1678

A book of poetry by Anne Bradstreet was published posthumously in Massachusetts.

1679

A fire destroyed 150 houses in Boston.

1681

John Bunyan's The Pilgrim's Progress published in America; became a best-seller.

1682

Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, claimed lower Mississippi River country for France, called it Louisiana Apr. 9. Had French outposts built in Illinois and Texas, 1684. Killed during mutiny, 1687.

William Penn arrived in Pennsylvania.

Spanish colonists became the first Europeans to settle in Texas, at the site of present-day El Paso.

1683

William Penn signed treaty with Delaware Indians Apr. 23, and made payment for Pennsylvania lands. The first German colonists in America settled near Philadelphia.

1689

New York's English colonial governor, Sir Edmund Andros, resigned after an armed uprising in Boston on Apr. 18.

1690

The New England Primer came into use in elementary schools.

The first colonial newspaper, Publick Occurrences, was published by Benjamin Harris, but promptly shut down for lack of official permission.

Whaling began large-scale operations in Nantucket.

1692

Witchcraft delusion at Salem, MA; 20 alleged witches executed by special court.

1696

Capt. William Kidd arrested and sent to England; hanged for piracy, 1701.

1697

The Essays of Sir Francis Bacon, published in England in 1597, was published in America; it became a best-seller.

1699

French settlements made in Mississippi, Louisiana.

1702

Legislation enacted making the Church of England the established church in Maryland.

1704

Indians attacked Deerfield, MA, Feb. 28-29; killed 40, carried off 100.

Boston News Letter, first regular newspaper, started by John Campbell, postmaster.

1709

British-colonial troops captured French fort, Port Royal, Nova Scotia, in Queen Anne's War 1701-13. France yielded Nova Scotia by treaty, 1713.

1712

Slaves revolted in New York Apr. 6; 21 were executed. Second rising, 1741; 13 slaves hanged, 13 burned, 71 deported.

1716

First theater in colonies opened in Williamsburg, VA.

1726

Poor people rioted in Philadelphia.

Great Awakening religious revival began.

1731

America's first circulating library founded in Philadelphia by Benjamin Franklin.

1732

Benjamin Franklin published the first Poor Richard's Almanack; published annually to 1757.

Last of the 13 colonies, Georgia, chartered.

1733

Influenza epidemic swept through New York City and Philadelphia.

1735

Editor John Peter Zenger acquitted Aug. 5 in New York of libeling British governor by criticizing his conduct in office.

1739

A series of slave uprisings put down in South Carolina.

1741

Famous sermon “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God,” delivered at Enfield, MA, July 8, by Jonathan Edwards, a major figure in the revivalist Great Awakening.

Capt. Vitus Bering reached Alaska.

1744

King George's War pitted British and colonials vs. French. Colonials captured Louisburg, Cape Breton Is., June 17, 1745. Returned to France 1748 by Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle.

1752

Benjamin Franklin, flying kite in thunderstorm, proved lightning is electricity June 15; invented lightning rod.

Liberty Bell, cast in England, was delivered to Pennsylvania.

1754

Delegates from 7 colonies to Albany, NY, Congress, July 19, approved a “Plan of Union” by Benjamin Franklin; but plan was rejected by the colonies.

French and Indian War began when French occupied Ft. Duquesne (Pittsburgh). British moved Acadian French from Nova Scotia to Louisiana Oct. 8, 1755. British captured Québec Sept. 18, 1759, in battles in which French Gen. Joseph de Montcalm and British Gen. James Wolfe were killed. Peace pact signed Feb. 10, 1763. French lost Canada and Midwest.

1757

The first street lights appeared in Philadelphia.

1764

Sugar Act, Apr. 5, placed duties on lumber, foodstuffs, molasses, and rum in colonies, to pay French and Indian War debts.

1765

Stamp Act, enacted by Parliament Mar. 22, required revenue stamps to help fund royal troops. Nine colonies, at Stamp Act Congress in New York Oct. 7-25, adopted Declaration of Rights. Stamp Act repealed Mar. 17, 1766.

Quartering Act, requiring colonists to house British troops, went into effect Mar. 24.

1767

Townshend Acts levied taxes on glass, painter's lead, paper, and tea. In 1770 all duties except on tea were repealed.

1770

British troops fired Mar. 5 into Boston mob, killed 5 including Crispus Attucks, a black man, reportedly leader of group; later called Boston Massacre.

1773

East India Co. tea ships turned back at Boston, New York, and Philadelphia in May. Cargo ship burned at Annapolis Oct. 14; cargo thrown overboard at Boston Tea Party Dec. 16, to protest the tea tax.

First museum in the colonies was officially established in Charleston, SC; later named the Charleston Museum.

1774

“Intolerable Acts” of Parliament curtailed Massachusetts self-rule; barred use of Boston harbor till tea was paid for.

First Continental Congress held in Philadelphia Sept. 5-Oct. 26; called for civil disobedience against British.

Rhode Island abolished slavery.

1775

Patrick Henry addressed Virginia convention, Mar. 23, said, “Give me liberty or give me death.”

Paul Revere and William Dawes Apr. 18 rode to alert Patriots that British were on their way to Concord to destroy arms. At Lexington, MA, Apr. 19, Minutemen lost 8. On return from Concord, British took 273 casualties.

Col. Ethan Allen (joined by Col. Benedict Arnold) captured Ft. Ticonderoga, NY, May 10; also Crown Point. Colonials headed for Bunker Hill, fortified Breed's Hill, Charlestown, MA. Repulsed British under Gen. William Howe twice before retreating June 17.

Continental Congress June 15 named George Washington commander in chief. Established a postal system, July 26; Benjamin Franklin became the first postmaster general.

1776

Common Sense, famous pro-independence pamphlet by Thomas Paine, was published Jan. 10; quickly sold some 100,000 copies.

France and Spain each agreed May 2 to provide arms.

In Continental Congress June 7, Richard Henry Lee (VA) moved “that these united colonies are and of right ought to be free and independent states.” Resolution adopted July 2. Declaration of Independence approved July 4.

Col. William Moultrie's batteries at Charleston, SC, repulsed British sea attack June 28. Washington lost Battle of Long Island Aug. 27; evacuated New York.

Nathan Hale executed as spy by British Sept. 22.

Brig. Gen. Arnold's Lake Champlain fleet was defeated at Valcour Oct. 11, but British returned to Canada. Howe failed to destroy Washington's army at White Plains Oct. 28. Hessians captured Ft. Washington, Manhattan, and 3,000 men Nov. 16; captured Ft. Lee, NJ, Nov. 18.

Washington, in Pennsylvania, recrossed Delaware River Dec. 25-26, defeated Hessians at Trenton, NJ, Dec. 26.

1777

Washington defeated Lord Cornwallis at Princeton Jan. 3.

Continental Congress, June 14, authorized an American flag, the Stars and Stripes.

Maj. Gen. John Burgoyne's force of 8,000 from Canada, captured Ft. Ticonderoga July 6. Americans beat back Burgoyne at Bemis Heights Oct. 7, cut off British escape route. Burgoyne surrendered 5,000 men at Saratoga, NY, Oct. 17.

Articles of Confederation adopted by Continental Congress Nov. 15.

1778

France signed treaty of aid with U.S. Feb. 6. Sent fleet; British evacuated Philadelphia in consequence, June 18.

1779

George Rogers Clark took Vincennes in Feb.

John Paul Jones on the Bonhomme Richard defeated Serapis in British North Sea waters, Sept. 23.

1780

Charleston, SC, fell to the British May 12, but a British force was defeated near Kings Mountain, NC, Oct. 7 by militiamen.

Benedict Arnold found to be a traitor Sept. 23. Arnold escaped, made brigadier general in British army.

1781

Articles of Confederation took effect Mar. 1.

Bank of North America incorporated May 26.

Cornwallis retired to Yorktown, VA. Adm. Francois Joseph de Grasse landed 3,000 French and stopped British fleet in Hampton Roads. Washington and Jean Baptiste de Rochambeau joined forces, arrived near Williamsburg Sept. 26. Siege of Cornwallis began Oct. 6; Cornwallis surrendered Oct. 19.

1782

New British cabinet agreed in March to recognize U.S. independence. Preliminary agreement signed in Paris Nov. 30.

Use of the scarlet letter A, sewn on clothing or branded on skin of adulterers, was discontinued in New England.

1783

Massachusetts Supreme Court declared slavery illegal in that state.

Britain, U.S. signed Paris peace treaty Sept. 3 recognizing American independence (Congress ratified it Jan. 14, 1784).

Washington ordered army disbanded Nov. 3, bade farewell to his officers at Fraunces Tavern, New York City, Dec. 4.

First regular daily newspaper, Pennsylvania Evening Post, went on sale in Philadelphia, May 30.

Noah Webster published American Spelling Book.

1784

Thomas Jefferson's proposal to ban slavery in new territory after 1802 was narrowly defeated Mar. 1.

First successful daily newspaper, Pennsylvania Packet & General Advertiser, published Sept. 21.

1785

Regular stagecoach routes established between Albany, New York City, and Philadelphia.

1786

Delegates from 5 states at Annapolis, MD, Sept. 11-14 asked Congress to call a constitutional convention.

1787

Shays's Rebellion of debt-ridden farmers in Massachusetts failed Jan. 25.

Northwest Ordinance adopted July 13 by Continental Congress for Northwest Territory, N of Ohio River, W of New York; made rules for statehood. Guaranteed freedom of religion, support for schools, no slavery.

Constitutional convention opened at Philadelphia May 25, with Washington presiding. Constitution accepted by delegates Sept. 17; Delaware became 1st state to ratify it, Dec. 7; Pennsylvania and New Jersey followed. Ratification by 9th state, New Hampshire, June 21, 1788, meant adoption; declared in effect Mar. 4, 1789.

Federalist Papers first appeared in NY Independent Journal.

1788

A large fire in New Orleans, then a Spanish territory, destroyed much of the city Mar. 21.

The Constitution was adopted June 21 after being ratified by the requisite 9th state (New Hampshire); also ratified by Georgia, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Maryland, S. Carolina, Virginia, and New York throughout the year.

First U.S. senators elected Sept. 30, from Pennsylvania.

Settlers founded future cities Cincinnati, OH; Dubuque, IA; and Charleston, WV.

1789

George Washington chosen president by all electors voting (73 eligible, 69 voting, 4 absent); John Adams, vice president, got 34 votes. First Congress met at Federal Hall, New York City, and declared Constitution in effect, Mar. 4; Washington inaugurated there Apr. 30; first inaugural ball held May 7.

Tammany Hall founded as benevolent organization, May 12.

U.S. State Dept. established by Congress July 27. (Thomas Jefferson installed as first secretary of state Feb. 1790.) War Dept. created, Aug. 7, with Henry Knox to be secretary; Treasury Dept. created Sept. 2, with Alexander Hamilton to be secretary.

Supreme Court created by Federal Judiciary Act, Sept. 24; John Jay confirmed by Congress as first Supreme Court chief justice, Sept. 26. Congress submitted Bill of Rights to states, Sept. 25.

1790

Congress, Mar. 1, authorized decennial U.S. census; Naturalization Act (2-year residency) passed Mar. 26.

John Carroll consecrated as 1st American Catholic bishop, Aug. 15.

Congress met in Philadelphia, new temporary capital, Dec. 6.

1791

Bill of Rights went into effect Dec. 15.

1792

Coinage Act established U.S. Mint in Philadelphia Apr. 2.

Gen. “Mad” Anthony Wayne made commander in Ohio-Indiana area, trained “American Legion,” established string of forts. Routed Indians at Fallen Timbers on Maumee River Aug. 20, 1794, checked British at Fort Miami, OH.

White House cornerstone laid Oct. 13.

1793

Washington inaugurated for 2nd term, Mar. 4, having received 132 electoral votes; John Adams again became vice president, having received the 2nd highest total, 77.

Washington declared U.S. neutrality, Apr. 22, in war between Britain and France.

Eli Whitney invented cotton gin, reviving Southern slavery.

1794

Whiskey Rebellion, W Pennsylvania farmers protesting liquor tax of 1791, suppressed by federal militia in Sept.

Jay's controversial treaty with Britain signed Nov. 19, ratified June 24, 1795.

1795

U.S. bought peace from Algerian pirates by paying $1 mil ransom for 115 seamen Sept. 5, followed by annual tributes.

Gen. Wayne signed peace with Indians at Fort Greenville.

University of North Carolina became first operating state university.

1796

Washington's Farewell Address as president delivered Sept. 17. Warned against permanent alliances with foreign powers, big public debt, large military establishment, and devices of “small, artful, enterprising minority.”

1797

U.S. frigate United States launched at Philadelphia July 10; Constellation at Baltimore Sept. 7; Constitution (Old Ironsides) at Boston Sept. 20.

John Adams inaugurated as 2nd president Mar. 4, after having received 71 electoral votes; Thomas Jefferson became vice president having received 68.

1798

Alien & Sedition Acts passed by Federalists June-July; intended to silence political opposition.

War with France threatened over French raids on U.S. shipping and rejection of U.S. diplomats. Navy (45 ships) and 365 privateers captured 84 French ships. USS Constellation took French warship Insurgente, 1799. Napoleon stopped French raids after becoming First Consul.

1799

Washington died at Mount Vernon Dec. 14.

1800

Federal government moved to Washington, DC.

1801

John Marshall named Supreme Court chief justice, Jan. 20.

Thomas Jefferson, who had received same number of electoral votes as Aaron Burr in 1800 election, won out over Burr in House vote reached Feb. 17; Burr named vice president.

Tripoli declared war June 10 against U.S., which refused added tribute to commerce-raiding Arab corsairs. Land and naval campaigns forced Tripoli to negotiate peace June 4, 1805.

Oldest U.S. art institution, Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, founded.

1802

Congress established the U.S. Military Academy at West Point, N.Y.

1803

Supreme Court, in Marbury v Madison case, for the first time overturned a U.S. law Feb. 24.

Napoleon sold all of Louisiana, stretching to Canadian border, to U.S., for $11,250,000 in bonds, plus $3,750,000 indemnities to American citizens with claims against France. U.S. took title Dec. 20. Purchase doubled U.S. area.

1804

Lewis and Clark expedition ordered by Pres. Thomas Jefferson to explore what is now northwest U.S. Started from St. Louis May 14; ended Sept. 23, 1806.

Vice Pres. Aaron Burr shot Alexander Hamilton in a duel July 11 in Weehawken, NJ; Hamilton died next day.

1805

U.S. Marines aided by Arab mercenaries, Apr. 27, captured Tripolitan port of Derna, major victory in war against Barbary pirates; inspiration for “to the shores of Tripoli” in Marines Corps song.

1807

Robert Fulton made first practical steamboat trip; left New York City Aug. 17, reached Albany, 150 mi, in 32 hr.

Embargo Act banned all trade with foreign countries, forbidding ships to set sail for foreign ports Dec. 22.

1808

Slave importation outlawed. Some 250,000 slaves were illegally imported 1808-60.

1810

Third U.S. Census found a population of 7,239,881. The black population was put at 1,378,110, of whom 186,746 were free citizens.

1811

William Henry Harrison, governor of Indiana, defeated Indians under the Prophet, in battle of Tippecanoe Nov. 7.

Cumberland Road begun at Cumberland, MD; became important route to West.About 400 slaves revolted in Louisiana, killing the son of a plantation owner and marching on New Orleans. The insurrection was suppressed; some 75 slaves killed.

1812

War of 1812 had 3 main causes: Britain seized U.S. ships trading with France; Britain seized 4,000 naturalized U.S. sailors by 1810; Britain armed Indians who raided western border. U.S. stopped trade with Europe 1807 and 1809. Trade with Britain only was stopped 1810.

Unaware that Britain had raised the blockade against France 2 days before, Congress declared war June 18.

USS Essex captured Alert Aug. 13; USS Constitution destroyed Guerriere Aug. 19; USS Wasp took Frolic Oct. 18; USS United States defeated Macedonian off Azores Oct. 25; USS Constitution beat Java Dec. 29. British took Detroit Aug. 16.

1813

Oliver H. Perry defeated British fleet at Battle of Lake Erie, Sept. 10. U.S. won Battle of the Thames, Ontario, Oct. 5, but failed in Canadian invasion attempts. York (Toronto) and Buffalo were burned.

1814

British landed in Maryland in Aug., defeated U.S. force Aug. 24, burned Capitol and White House. Maryland militia stopped British advance Sept. 12. Bombardment of Ft. McHenry, Baltimore, for 25 hours, Sept. 13-14, by British fleet failed; Francis Scott Key wrote words to “The Star-Spangled Banner.”

Troops under Andrew Jackson defeated Creek Indians led by Chief Weatherford at Battle of Horshoe Bend in Alabama, Mar. 29, ending Creek Indian War (1813-14).

U.S. won naval Battle of Lake Champlain Sept. 11. Peace treaty with Great Britain signed at Ghent Dec. 24.

1815

Some 5,300 British, unaware of peace treaty, attacked U.S. entrenchments near New Orleans, Jan. 8. British had more than 2,000 casualties; Americans lost 71.

U.S. flotilla finally ended piracy by Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli by Aug. 6.

1816

Second Bank of the U.S. chartered Apr. 10.

The American Colonization Society, which sought to address slavery issue by transporting freed blacks to Africa, formed in Washington, DC, Dec. 1816-Jan. 1817.

1817

William Cullen Bryant's poem “Thanatopsis” published.

Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet established the first free public school for the deaf in Hartford, CT.

1818

Connecticut expanded suffrage among white male voters. Massachusetts followed suit in 1820, and New York in 1821, reducing or eliminating property qualifications.

1819

Spain ceded Florida to U.S. Feb. 22.

American steamship Savannah made first part-steam-powered, part-sail-powered crossing of Atlantic: Savannah, GA, to Liverpool, England, 29 days.

Washington Irving's Sketch Book became a best-seller.

1820

First organized immigration of blacks to Africa from U.S. began with 86 free blacks sailing Feb. to Sierra Leone.

Henry Clay's Missouri Compromise bill passed by Congress Mar. 3. Slavery was allowed in Missouri, but not elsewhere west of the Mississippi River north of 36 ˚ 30 ´ latitude (the southern line of Missouri). Repealed 1854.

1821

Emma Willard founded Troy Female Seminary, first U.S. women's college.

Stephen Austin established the first American community in Texas, San Felipe de Austin.

The Spy, a novel by James Fenimore Cooper set during the American Revolution, was published and became a best-seller.

1822

Tension between sports and academics surfaced when Yale College Pres. Timothy Dwight banned a primitive form of football, setting fines for violators.

1823

Monroe Doctrine, opposing European intervention in the Americas, enunciated by Pres. James Monroe Dec. 2. The Hudson River School, painters who focused on the beauties of nature, began to come to public attention.

1824

Pawtucket, RI, weavers strike, first such action by women.

Slavery abolished in the state of Illinois Aug. 2.

1825

After a deadlocked election, John Quincy Adams was elected president by the U.S. House, Feb. 9.

Erie Canal opened; first boat left Buffalo Oct. 26, reached New York City Nov. 4.

John Stevens, of Hoboken, NJ, built and operated first experimental steam locomotive in U.S.

1826

Thomas Jefferson and John Adams both died July 4.

James Fenimore Cooper's The Last of the Mohicans published.

1827

Massachusetts passed a law providing for tax-supported public high schools, the first state to do so.

1828

South Carolina Dec. 19 declared the right of state nullification of federal laws, opposing the “Tariff of Abominations.”

Noah Webster published his American Dictionary of the English Language.

Baltimore & Ohio, the first U.S. passenger railroad, begun July 4.

1829

Andrew Jackson inaugurated as president, Mar. 4.

1830

Famous debate Jan. 27 between Sen. Daniel Webster (MA) and Robert Hayne (SC), on state right to nullify federal law.

Mormon church organized by Joseph Smith in Fayette, NY, Apr. 6.

Pres. Jackson, May 28, signed Indian Removal Act, providing land and some pay to Indians agreeing to resettle in West.

1831

William Lloyd Garrison began abolitionist newspaper The Liberator Jan. 1.

Nat Turner, black slave in Virginia, led local slave rebellion, starting Aug. 21; 57 whites killed. Troops called in, 100 slaves killed, Turner captured, tried, hanged Nov. 11.

1832

Black Hawk War (IL-WI) Apr.-Sept. pushed Sauk and Fox Indians west across Mississippi.

1833

American Anti-Slavery Society founded in Philadelphia, Dec. 4.

Oberlin College became first in U.S. to adopt coeducation.

1835

Liberty Bell cracked July 8, tolling death of Chief Justice John Marshall.

Seminole Indians in Florida under Osceola began attacks Nov. 1, protesting forced removal. The unpopular war ended Aug. 14, 1842; most of the Indians were sent to Oklahoma.

Texas proclaimed right to secede from Mexico; Sam Houston put in command of Texas army, Nov. 2-4.

Gold discovered on Cherokee land in Georgia. Indians forced to cede lands, Dec. 20, and to cross Mississippi.

1836

Texans besieged at Alamo in San Antonio by Mexicans under Santa Anna, Feb. 23-Mar. 6; entire garrison killed. Texas independence declared, Mar. 2. At San Jacinto Apr. 21, Sam Houston and Texans defeated Mexicans.

Ralph Waldo Emerson published his first work, Nature, espousing his philosophy of transcendentalism.

Marcus Whitman, H. H. Spaulding, and wives reached Fort Walla Walla on Columbia River, OR. First white women to cross plains.

1838

Cherokee Indians made “Trail of Tears” as they were removed from Georgia to Oklahoma starting Oct.

1841

First emigrant wagon train for California, 47 persons, left Independence, MO, May 1, reached California Nov. 4.

Edgar Allan Poe published one of the first American detective stories, The Murders in the Rue Morgue.

Brook Farm commune set up by New England Transcendentalist intellectuals. Lasted to 1846.

1842

Webster-Ashburton Treaty signed Aug. 9, fixing the U.S.-Canada border in Maine and Minnesota.

First use of anesthetic (sulfuric ether gas).

Settlement of Oregon began via Oregon Trail.

1843

More than 1,000 settlers left Independence, MO, for Oregon May 22, arrived Oct.

1844

First message over first telegraph line sent May 24 by inventor Samuel F.B. Morse from Washington to Baltimore: “What hath God wrought!”

1845

Congress overrode a presidential veto for the first time, Mar. 3, after Pres. John Tyler vetoed a tariff bill.

Texas Congress voted for annexation by U.S., July 4. U.S. Congress admitted Texas to Union, Dec. 29.

Edgar Allan Poe's poem “The Raven” published.

1846

Mexican War began after Pres. James K. Polk ordered Gen. Zachary Taylor to seize disputed Texan land settled by Mexicans. After border clash, U.S. declared war May 13; Mexico May 23.

Bear flag of Republic of California raised by American settlers at Sonoma June 14.

About 12,000 U.S. troops took Vera Cruz Mar. 27, 1847, and Mexico City Sept. 14, 1847. By treaty, signed Feb. 2, 1848, war was ended, and Mexico ceded claims to Texas, California, and other territory.

Treaty with Britain June 15 set boundary in Oregon territory at 49th parallel (extension of existing line). Expansionists had used slogan “54˚ 40 ´ or fight.” The term “manifest destiny,” coined by a journalist in 1845, also came into play.

Mormons, after violent clashes with settlers over polygamy, left Nauvoo, IL, for West under Brigham Young; settled July 1847 at Salt Lake City, UT.

Elias Howe invented sewing machine.

1847

First adhesive U.S. postage stamps on sale July 1; Benjamin Franklin 5¢, Washington 10¢.

Ralph Waldo Emerson published first book of poems; Henry Wadsworth Longfellow published Evangeline.

1848

Gold discovered Jan. 24 in California; 80,000 prospectors emigrated in 1849.

Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton led Seneca Falls, NY, Women's Rights Convention July 19-20.

1850

Sen. Henry Clay's Compromise of 1850 admitted California as 31st state Sept. 9, with slavery forbidden; made Utah and New Mexico territories; made Fugitive Slave Law more harsh; ended District of Columbia slave trade.

Nathaniel Hawthorne's The Scarlet Letter published.

1851

Herman Melville's Moby-Dick published.

1852

Uncle Tom's Cabin, by Harriet Beecher Stowe, published as a book.

1853

Comm. Matthew C. Perry, U.S.N., received by Japan, July 14; negotiated treaty to open Japan to U.S. ships.

New York City hosted first World's Fair in the U.S., beginning July 14.

Stephen Foster published “My Old Kentucky Home.”

1854

Republican Party formed at Ripon, WI, Feb. 28. Opposed Kansas-Nebraska Act (became law May 30), which left issue of slavery to vote of settlers.

Henry David Thoreau published Walden.

Treaty ratified with Mexico Apr. 25, providing for purchase of a strip of land (Gadsden Purchase).

1855

Walt Whitman published Leaves of Grass.

First railroad train crossed Mississippi River on the river's first bridge, Rock Island, IL-Davenport, IA, Apr. 21.

1856

Republican Party's first nominee for president, John C. Fremont, defeated. Abraham Lincoln made 50 speeches for him.

Lawrence, KS, sacked May 21 by proslavery group; abolitionist John Brown led antislavery men against Missourians at Osawatomie, KS, Aug. 30.

The first U.S. kindergarten was opened, in Watertown, WI.

1857

Dred Scott decision by Supreme Court Mar. 6 held that slaves did not become free in a free state, Congress could not bar slavery from a territory, and blacks could not be citizens.

Currier & Ives issued their first print.

1858

First Atlantic cable completed, by Cyrus W. Field Aug. 5.

Lincoln-Douglas debates in Illinois, Aug. 21-Oct. 15.

1859

First commercially productive oil well, drilled near Titusville, PA, by Edwin L. Drake Aug. 27.

Abolitionist John Brown, with 21 men, seized U.S. Armory at Harpers Ferry Oct. 16. U.S. Marines captured raiders, killing several. Brown hanged for treason Dec. 2.

1860

Approximately 20,000 New England shoe workers went on strike Feb. 22 and won higher wages.

Abraham Lincoln, Republican, elected president Nov. 6 in 4-way race.

First Pony Express between Sacramento, CA, and St. Joseph, MO, started Apr. 3.

1861

Seven southern states set up Confederate States of America Feb. 8, with Jefferson Davis as president, captured federal arsenals and forts. Civil War began as Confederates fired on Ft. Sumter in Charleston, SC, Apr. 12, capturing it Apr. 14.

Pres. Lincoln called for 75,000 volunteers Apr. 15. By May, 11 states had seceded. Lincoln blockaded Southern ports Apr. 19, cutting off vital exports, aid.

Confederates repelled Union forces at first Battle of Bull Run, July 21.

First transcontinental telegraph line was put in operation.

1862

Union forces were victorious in Western campaigns, took New Orleans May 1. Battles in East were largely inconclusive despite heavy casualties. The Battle of Antietam, in western Maryland Sept. 17, was the bloodiest one-day battle of the war; each side lost over 2,000 men.

Homestead Act approved May 20; it granted free farms to settlers.

Land Grant Act approved July 7, providing for public land sale to benefit agricultural education; eventually led to establishment of state university systems.

1863

Pres. Lincoln issued Emancipation Proclamation Jan. 1, freeing “all slaves in areas still in rebellion.”

Entire Mississippi River was in Union hands by July 4. Union forces won a major victory at Gettysburg, PA, July 1-3. Lincoln gave his Gettysburg Address Nov. 19.

Confederate forces under siege surrendered Vicksburg to Union forces under Gen. Ulysses S. Grant, July 4.

In draft riots in New York City about 1,000 were killed or wounded; some blacks were hanged by mobs July 13-16.

Pres. Lincoln declared Thanksgiving to be a national holiday.

1864

Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman marched through Georgia, taking Atlanta Sept. 1, Savannah Dec. 22.

Sand Creek massacre of Cheyenne and Arapaho Indians Nov. 29. Soldiers drove Indians out of village; about 150 killed.

1865

Gen. Robert E. Lee surrendered 27,800 Confederate troops to Gen. Grant at Appomattox Court House, VA, Apr. 9. J. E. Johnston surrendered 31,200 to Sherman at Durham Station, NC, Apr. 18. Last rebel troops surrendered May 26.

Pres. Lincoln was shot Apr. 14 by John Wilkes Booth in Ford's Theater, Washington, DC; died the following morning. Vice Pres. Andrew Johnson was sworn in as president. Booth was hunted down; fatally wounded, perhaps by his own hand, Apr. 26. Four co-conspirators hanged July 7.

13th Amendment, abolishing slavery, ratified Dec. 6.

1866

Ku Klux Klan formed secretly in South to terrorize blacks who voted. Disbanded 1869-71. A 2nd Klan organized 1915.

Congress took control of Southern Reconstruction, backed freedmen's rights in legislation vetoed by Johnson; veto overridden by Congress, Apr. 9.

1867

Alaska sold to U.S. by Russia for $7.2 mil Mar. 30, through efforts of Sec. of State William H. Seward.

The Grange was organized Dec. 4, to protect farmer interests.

Horatio Alger published first book, Ragged Dick.

1868

Pres. Johnson tried to remove Edwin M. Stanton, secretary of war; was impeached by House Feb. 24 for violation of Tenure of Office Act; acquitted by Senate Mar.-May.

14th Amendment, providing for citizenship of all persons born or naturalized in U.S., ratified July 9.

Louisa May Alcott published Little Women.

The World Almanac, a publication of the New York World, appeared for the first time.

1869

Financial “Black Friday” in New York Sept. 24; caused by attempt to “corner” gold.

Transcontinental railroad completed; golden spike driven at Promontory, UT, May 10, marking the junction of Central Pacific and Union Pacific.

Knights of Labor formed in Philadelphia. By 1886, this labor union had 700,000 members nationally.

Woman suffrage law passed in Wyoming Territory Dec. 10.

1870

15th Amendment, making race no bar to voting rights, ratified Feb. 8.

First U.S. boardwalk completed, in Atlantic City, NJ.

U.S. Weather Bureau founded.

1871

Great fire destroyed Chicago Oct. 8-11.

National Rifle Association founded.

1872

Amnesty Act restored civil rights to citizens of the South May 22, except for 500 Confederate leaders.

Congress established first national park—Yellowstone.

James McNeill Whistler painted famous portrait known informally as “Whistler's Mother.”

1873

First U.S. postal card issued May 1.

Jesse James and his gang robbed their first passenger train July 21.Banks failed, panic began in Sept. Depression lasted 5 years.

“Boss” William Tweed of New York City convicted Nov. 19 of stealing public funds. He died in jail in 1878.

New York's Bellevue Hospital started first nursing school.

1874

Women's Christian Temperance Union established in Cleveland.

The first U.S. public zoo was established in Philadelphia.

1875

Congress passed Civil Rights Act Mar. 1, giving equal rights to blacks in public accommodations and jury duty. Act invalidated in 1883 by Supreme Court.

First Jim Crow segregation law enacted, in Tennessee.

First Kentucky Derby held May 17.

1876

Samuel J. Tilden, Democrat, received majority of popular votes for president over Rutherford B. Hayes, Republican, but 22 electoral votes were in dispute; issue left to Congress. Congress agreed to certify Hayes as winner in Feb. 1877 after Republicans agreed to end federal Reconstruction of South.

Alexander Graham Bell patented the telephone Mar. 7

Col. George A. Custer and 264 soldiers of the 7th Cavalry killed June 25 in “last stand,” Battle of the Little Big Horn, MT, in Sioux Indian War.

1877

Molly Maguires, Irish terrorist society in Scranton, PA, mining areas, was broken up by the hanging, June 21, of 11 leaders for murders of mine officials and police.

Pres. Rutherford B. Hayes sent troops in violent national railroad strike.

1878

First commercial telephone exchange opened, New Haven, CT, Jan. 28.

Thomas A. Edison founded Edison Electric Light Co. on Oct. 15.

1879

F. W. Woolworth opened his first five-and-ten store, in Utica, NY, Feb. 22.

Henry George published Progress & Poverty, advocating single tax on land.

French actress Sarah Bernhardt made her U.S. debut Nov. 8 at New York City's Booth Theater.

1880

Chinese Exclusion Treaty signed with China, Nov. 17, providing for restitution of Chinese nationals entering U.S.

Lew Wallace's Ben Hur published.

1881

Clara Barton May 21 founded the American Red Cross.

Pres. James A. Garfield shot in Washington, DC, July 2; died Sept. 19.

Famous gun battle between the Earp brothers and outlaw rustlers, Oct. 26 near the OK Corral, Tombstone, AZ.

Booker T. Washington founded Tuskegee Institute for blacks.

Helen Hunt Jackson published A Century of Dishonor, about mistreatment of Indians.

1882

Chinese Exclusion Act, barring Chinese immigration, passed by Congress May 6.

1883

Pendleton Act passed Jan. 16, reformed civil service.

Northern Pacific Railroad completed, Sept. 8.

Brooklyn Bridge opened May 24.

Buffalo Bill Cody's Wild West Show began its 30-year touring run.

1884

First long-distance telephone call completed, Mar. 27, between Boston and New York.

First roller coaster in the U.S. opened at Coney Island in New York City.

Mark Twain's masterpiece, The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, appeared.

1885

Washington Monument dedicated Feb. 21

Postal rates lowered to 2 cents an ounce.

1886

Haymarket riot and bombing, May 4, followed bitter labor battles for 8-hour day in Chicago; 7 police and 4 workers died. Eight anarchists found guilty Aug. 20; 4 hanged Nov. 11.

Coca-Cola first sold, May 8 at Jacob's Pharmacy in Atlanta.

Geronimo, Apache Indian, surrendered Sept. 4, ending last major Indian war.

Statue of Liberty dedicated Oct. 28.

American Federation of Labor (AFL) formed Dec. 8 by 25 craft unions.

1887

Interstate Commerce Act enacted Feb. 4.

Pres. Grover Cleveland signed the Hatch Act, Mar. 2, establishing agriculture experiment stations across the U.S.

Eugene Field published poem “Little Boy Blue.”

1888

Great blizzard struck eastern U.S. Mar. 11-14, causing about 400 deaths.

Ernest Thayer's poem “Casey at the Bat” was recited for the first time in public, at a New York City theater in May.

1889

U.S. opened Oklahoma to white settlement Apr. 22; within 24 hours claims for 2 mil acres were staked by 50,000 “sooner” settlers.

Johnstown, PA, flood May 31; 2,200 lives lost.

Electric lights installed at the White House.

1890

Battle of Wounded Knee, SD, Dec. 29, the last major conflict between Indians and U.S. troops. About 200 Indian men, women, and children and 29 soldiers were killed.

Sherman Antitrust Act passed July 2, began federal effort to curb monopolies.

Jacob Riis published How the Other Half Lives, about city slums.

Poems of Emily Dickinson published, 4 years after her death.

1891

Forest Reserve Act, Mar. 3, let president close public forest land to settlement for establishment of national parks.

Carnegie Hall, in New York City, opened May 5.

1892

Ellis Island, in New York Bay, opened Jan. 1 to receive immigrants.

Homestead, PA, strike at Carnegie steel mills; 7 guards and 11 strikers and spectators shot to death July 6.

Heavyweight James J. Corbett KO'd John L. Sullivan Sept. 7, in first title bout to use padded gloves.

1893

Columbian Exposition, blockbuster world's fair, held May-Oct. in Chicago.

Financial panic began, led to 4-year depression.

Mormon Temple dedicated in Salt Lake City, UT.

1894

Thomas A. Edison's kinetoscope, for motion pictures (invented 1887), given first public showing Apr. 14.

Jacob S. Coxey led army of unemployed from the Midwest, reaching Washington, DC, Apr. 30. Coxey arrested May 1 for trespassing on Capitol grounds; his army disbanded.

Pullman strike began May 11 at a railroad car plant in Chicago.

Milton Hershey started Hershey Chocolate Company.

1895

“America the Beautiful” appeared for 1st time, in church publication, July 4.

Stephen Crane's The Red Badge of Courage published.

1896

William Jennings Bryan delivered “Cross of Gold” speech July 8; won Democratic Party nomination.

Supreme Court, in Plessy v. Ferguson, May 18, approved racial segregation under the “separate but equal” doctrine.

John Philip Sousa composed “Stars and Stripes Forever” on Dec. 25.

1897

Olney-Pauncefote Treaty signed with Britain, Jan. 11, giving wide scope to arbitration in settling disputes; never ratified by U.S.

John J. McDermott won first Boston Marathon Apr. 19.

First Klondike gold arrived in San Francisco July 14.

Coal miners' strike settled Sept. 11, after more than 20 miners fired on and killed by lawmen.

1898

U.S. battleship Maine blown up Feb. 15 at Havana; 260 killed.

U.S. blockaded Cuba Apr. 22 in aid of independence forces. U.S. declared war on Spain Apr. 24; destroyed Spanish fleet in Philippines May 1; took Guam June 20.

Puerto Rico taken by U.S. July 25-Aug. 12. Spain agreed Dec. 10 to cede Philippines, Puerto Rico, and Guam, and approved independence for Cuba.

Annexation of Hawaii signed by Pres. William McKinley, July 7.

1899

Filipino insurgents, unable to get recognition of independence from U.S., started guerrilla war Feb. 4. Their leader, Emilio Aguinaldo, captured May 23, 1901. Philippine Insurrection ended 1902. 20,000 Filipino troops killed, and some 200,000 civilian deaths, mostly from disease and starvation.

Pres. McKinley signed treaty officially ending Spanish-America War, Feb. 10.

U.S. declared Open Door Policy Sept. 6, to make China an open international market.

John Dewey published The School and Society, advocating “progressive education.”

Pianist Scott Joplin's “Maple Leaf Rag” was published, popularizing ragtime.

1900

Carry Nation, Kansas antisaloon agitator, began raiding with hatchet.

U.S. helped suppress “Boxer Rebellion” in Beijing.

International Ladies' Garment Workers Union was founded in New York City June 3.

Eastman Kodak Co. introduced the Brownie camera, popularizing picture-taking.

1901

Texas had first significant oil strike, Jan. 10.

Pres. McKinley was shot Sept. 6 in Buffalo, NY, by an anarchist, Leon Czolgosz; died Sept. 14. Vice Pres. Theodore Roosevelt sworn in as youngest-ever president, age 42 years, 11 months.

Booker T. Washington published Up From Slavery.

1902

Permanent Bureau of the Census established Mar. 6.

U.S. withdrew troops from Cuba May 20, and Cuba became independent.

Helen Keller autobiography appeared in serial form.

1903

Treaty between U.S. and Colombia to have U.S. dig Panama Canal signed Jan. 22, rejected by Colombia. Panama declared independence from Colombia with U.S. support Nov. 3; recognized by Pres. Theodore Roosevelt Nov. 6. U.S., Panama signed canal treaty Nov. 18.

Wisconsin set first direct primary voting system, May 23.

Henry Ford founded Ford Motor Co., June 16.

Boston defeated Pittsburgh, 5 games to 3, Oct. 13 in the first modern World Series.

First successful flight in heavier-than-air mechanically propelled airplane by Orville Wright Dec. 17 near Kitty Hawk, NC, 120 ft. in 12 secs. Later flight same day by Wilbur Wright, 852 ft. in 59 secs. Improved plane patented, 1906.

Fire in Iroquois Theater, Chicago, killed about 600, Dec. 30

Great Train Robbery, pioneering film, produced.

1904

St. Louis hosted first Olympics in U.S., July 1-Nov. 23.

First section of New York subway system opened, Oct. 27.

Ida Tarbell published muckraking The History of the Standard Oil Company.

Henry James's last great novel, The Golden Bowl, appeared.

1905

Industrial Workers of the World (Wobblies) founded by radicals in Chicago, June 27.

First Rotary Club founded in Chicago.

1906

Upton Sinclair published The Jungle.

San Francisco earthquake and fire, Apr. 18-19, left 503 dead, $350 mil damages.

Pure Food and Drug Act and Meat Inspection Act both passed June 30.

1907

Financial panic and depression started Mar. 13.

First round-world cruise of U.S. “Great White Fleet”: 16 battleships, 12,000 men.

1908

Springfield, IL, torn by anti-black rioting, Aug. 14-15.

Henry Ford introduced Model T car, priced at $850, Oct. 1.

1909

Adm. Robert E. Peary claimed to have reached North Pole Apr. 6 on 6th attempt, accompanied by Matthew Henson, a black man, and 4 Eskimos; may have fallen short.

National Conference on the Negro convened May 30, leading to founding of National Association for the Advancement of Colored People.

1910

Boy Scouts of America founded Feb. 8.

In a famous speech in Kansas, Aug. 10, former Pres. Roosevelt called for a “new nationalism.”

1911

Supreme Court dissolved Standard Oil Co. May 15.

Building holding New York City's Triangle Shirtwaist Co. factory caught fire Mar. 25; 146 died.

First transcontinental airplane flight (with numerous stops) by C. P. Rodgers, New York to Pasadena, CA, Sept. 17-Nov. 5; time in air 82 hr., 4 min.

1912

American Girl Guides founded Mar. 12; name changed in 1913 to Girl Scouts.

U.S. sent Marines Aug. 14 to Nicaragua, which was in default of loans to U.S. and Europe.

1913

16th Amendment, authorizing federal income tax, ratified Feb. 3.

NY Armory Show brought modern art to U.S. Feb. 17.

17th Amendment, providing for direct popular election of U.S. senators, ratified Apr. 8.

Federal Reserve System was authorized Dec. 23, in a major reform of U.S. banking and finance.

Charles Beard published his Economic Interpretation of the Constitution.

1914

Ford Motor Co. raised basic wage rates from $2.40 for 9-hr. day to $5 for 8-hr. day, Jan. 5.

When U.S. sailors were arrested at Tampico, Mexico, Apr. 9, Atlantic fleet was sent to Veracruz, occupied city.

Pres. Woodrow Wilson proclaimed U.S. neutrality in the European war, Aug. 4.

Panama Canal was officially opened Aug. 15.

The Clayton Antitrust Act was passed Oct. 15, strengthening federal antimonopoly powers.

1915

First transcontinental telephone call, New York to San Francisco, was completed Jan. 25, by Alexander Graham Bell and Thomas A. Watson.

British ship Lusitania sunk May 7 by German submarine; 128 American passengers lost (Germany had warned passengers in advance). As a result of U.S. campaign, Germany issued apology and promise of payments, Oct. 5. Pres. Wilson asked for a military fund increase, Dec. 7.

U.S. troops landed in Haiti, July 28. Haiti became a virtual U.S. protectorate under Sept. 16 treaty.

D.W. Griffith's film The Birth of a Nation released.

1916

Gen. John J. Pershing entered Mexico to pursue Francisco (Pancho) Villa, who had raided U.S. border areas. Forces withdrawn Feb. 5, 1917.

Rural Credits Acts passed July 17, followed by Warehouse Act Aug. 11; both provided financial aid to farmers.

Bomb exploded during San Francisco Preparedness Day parade July 22, killed 10. Thomas J. Mooney, labor organizer, and Warren K. Billings, shoe worker, were convicted 1917; both later pardoned.

U.S. bought Virgin Islands from Denmark Aug. 4.

Jeannette Rankin (R, MT) elected as first-ever female member of U.S. House.

U.S. established military government in the Dominican Republic Nov. 29.

Trade and loans to European allies soared during the year.

1917

Germany, suffering from British blockade, declared almost unrestricted submarine warfare Jan. 31. U.S. cut diplomatic ties with Germany Feb. 3, and formally declared war Apr. 6.

Jones Act, passed Mar. 2, made Puerto Rico U.S. territory, its inhabitants U.S. citizens.

Conscription law was passed May 18. First U.S. troops arrived in Europe June 26.

18th Amendment to the Constitution, providing for prohibition of manufacture, sale, or transportation of alcoholic beverages, was submitted to the states by Congress Dec. 18.

1918

Pres. Wilson set out his 14 Points as basis for peace, Jan. 8.

More than 1 mil American troops were in Europe by July. Allied counteroffensive launched at Château-Thierry July 18. War ended with signing of armistice Nov. 11.

Influenza epidemic killed an estimated 20 mil worldwide, 548,000 in U.S.

1919

18th (prohibition) Amendment, ratified Jan. 16, to take effect in 1 year.

First transatlantic flight, by U.S. Navy seaplane, left Rockaway, NY, May 8, stopped at Newfoundland, Azores, Lisbon May 27.

Boston police strike Sept. 9; National Guard breaks strike.

About 250 alien radicals were deported Dec. 22.

Sherwood Anderson published Winesburg, Ohio.

1920

In national Red Scare, some 2,700 Communists, anarchists, and other radicals were arrested Jan.-May.

League of Women Voters founded Feb. 14.

Senate refused Mar. 19 to ratify the League of Nations Covenant.

Radicals Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti accused of killing 2 men in Massachusetts payroll holdup Apr. 15. Found guilty 1921. A 6-year campaign for their release failed; both were executed Aug. 23, 1927. Verdict repudiated 1977, by proclamation of Gov. Michael Dukakis.

19th Amendment ratified Aug. 18, giving women the vote.

First regular licensed radio broadcasting begun Aug. 20.

Wall St., New York City, bomb explosion killed 30, injured 100, did $2 mil damage, Sept. 16.

Sinclair Lewis's Main Street, F. Scott Fitzgerald's This Side of Paradise, Edith Wharton's The Age of Innocence published.

1921

Congress sharply curbed immigration, set national quota system May 19.

Joint congressional resolution declaring peace with Germany, Austria, and Hungary signed July 2 by Pres. Warren G. Harding; treaties were signed in Aug.

In so-called Black Sox scandal, 8 Chicago White Sox players were banned from baseball Aug. 4 for conspiring with gamblers to throw the 1919 World Series.

Limitation of Armaments Conference met in Washington, DC, Nov. 12-Feb. 6, 1922. Major powers agreed to curtail naval construction, outlaw poison gas, restrict submarine attacks on merchant vessels, respect integrity of China.

Ku Klux Klan began revival with violence against Catholics in North, South, and Midwest.

1922

Violence during coal-mine strike at Herrin, IL, June 22-23 cost 36 lives, including those of 21 nonunion miners.

Reader's Digest founded.

T. S. Eliot's The Waste Land published in London.

1923

First sound-on-film motion picture, Phonofilm, shown at Rivoli Theater, New York City, beginning in April.

Pres. Calvin Coolidge addressed Congress, Dec. 6; first official broadcast of a presidential speech.

1924

Law approved by Congress June 15 making all Native Americans U.S. citizens.

Nellie Tayloe Ross elected governor of Wyoming Nov. 9; inaugurated as nation's first woman governor Jan. 5, 1925. Miriam (Ma) Ferguson elected governor of Texas Nov. 9; installed Jan. 20, 1925.

George Gershwin wrote Rhapsody in Blue.

1925

John T. Scopes found guilty of having taught evolution in Dayton, TN, high school, fined $100 and costs, July 24.

F. Scott Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby appeared.

1926

Dr. Robert H. Goddard demonstrated practicality of rockets, Mar. 16 at Auburn, MA, with first liquid-fuel rocket; rocket traveled 184 ft. in 2.5 sec.

Congress established Army Air Corps July 2.

Air Commerce Act passed Nov. 2, providing federal aid for airlines and airports.

Ernest Hemingway's The Sun Also Rises published.

1927

About 1,000 marines landed in China Mar. 5 to protect property in civil war.

Capt. Charles A. Lindbergh left Roosevelt Field, NY, May 20 alone in plane Spirit of St. Louis on first New York-Paris nonstop flight. Reached Le Bourget airfield May 21, 3,610 mi in 33 hours.

The Jazz Singer, with Al Jolson, demonstrated part-talking pictures in New York City Oct. 6.

Show Boat opened in New York Dec. 27.

1928

Amelia Earhart became first woman to fly across the Atlantic, June 17.

Herbert Hoover elected president Nov. 6, defeating New York Gov. Alfred E. Smith, a Catholic.

1929

“St. Valentine's Day massacre” in Chicago Feb. 14; gangsters killed 7 rivals.

Farm price stability aided by Agricultural Marketing Act, passed June 15.

Albert B. Fall, former secretary of the interior, was convicted of accepting bribe of $100,000 in the leasing of the Elk Hills (Teapot Dome) naval oil reserve; sentenced Nov. 1 to a year in prison and fined $100,000.

Stock market crash Oct. 29 marked end of past prosperity as stock prices plummeted. Stock losses for 1929-31 estimated at $50 bil; worst American depression began.

Thomas Wolfe published Look Homeward, Angel. William Faulkner published The Sound and the Fury.

1930

London Naval Reduction Treaty signed by U.S., Britain, Italy, France, and Japan Apr. 22; in effect Jan. 1, 1931; expired Dec. 31, 1936.

Hawley-Smoot Tariff signed; rate hikes slash world trade.

Sinclair Lewis became the first American to win a Nobel Prize in literature.

1931

Empire State Building opened in New York City May 1.

Al Capone was convicted of tax evasion Oct. 17.

Pearl Buck published The Good Earth.

1932

Reconstruction Finance Corp. established Jan. 22 to stimulate banking and business. Unemployment at 12 mil.

19-month-old Charles Lindbergh Jr. was kidnapped Mar. 1; found dead May 12. Bruno Hauptmann found guilty in trial Jan.-Feb. 1935; executed Apr. 3, 1936.

Bonus March on Washington, DC, launched May 29 by World War I veterans demanding Congress pay their bonus in full.

Franklin D. Roosevelt elected president for the first time in Democratic landslide, Nov. 8.

Chicago Bears won first NFL title game Dec. 18, defeating the Portsmouth (OH) Spartans, 9–0.

1933

Pres. Roosevelt named Frances Perkins U.S. secretary of labor; first woman in U.S. cabinet.

All banks in the U.S. ordered closed by Pres. Roosevelt Mar. 6.

In a “100 days” special session, Mar. 9-June 16, Congress passed New Deal social and economic measures, including measures to regulate banks, distribute funds to the jobless, create jobs, raise agricultural prices, and set wage and production standards for industry.

Tennessee Valley Authority created by act of Congress, May 18.

Gold standard dropped by U.S.; announced by Pres. Roosevelt Apr. 19, ratified by Congress June 5.

Prohibition ended in the U.S. as 36th state ratified 21st Amendment Dec. 5.

Pres. Roosevelt foreswore armed intervention in western hemisphere nations, Dec. 26.

1934

Pres. Roosevelt signed law creating the Securities and Exchange Commission, June 6.

U.S. troops pulled out of Haiti, Aug. 6.

1935

Boulder Dam (later renamed Hoover Dam) completed, May 29.

Works Progress Administration (WPA) instituted May 6. Rural Electrification Administration created May 11. National Industrial Recovery Act struck down by Supreme Court May 27.

Comedian Will Rogers and aviator Wiley Post killed Aug. 15 in Alaska plane crash.

Social Security Act passed by Congress Aug. 14.

Huey Long, senator from Louisiana and national political leader, shot Sept. 8; died Sept. 10.

George Gershwin's Porgy and Bess opened Oct. 10 in New York.

Committee for Industrial Organization (CIO; later Congress of Industrial Organizations) formed to expand industrial unionism Nov. 9.

1936

Jesse Owens won 4 gold medals at the Berlin Olympics in August.

Baseball Hall of Fame founded in Cooperstown, NY.

Margaret Mitchell published Gone With the Wind.

1937

Hindenburg exploded May 6 landing at Lakehurst, NJ.

Golden Gate Bridge opened, May 27.

Joe Louis knocked out James J. Braddock, became world heavyweight champ June 22.

Amelia Earhart, aviator, and copilot Fred Noonan lost July 2 near Howland Island, in the Pacific.

Pres. Roosevelt asked for 6 additional Supreme Court justices; “packing” plan defeated.

Auto, steel labor unions won first big contracts.

1938

Naval Expansion Act passed May 17.

National minimum wage enacted June 25.

Orson Welles radio dramatization of Martian invasion, War of the Worlds, Oct. 30, caused scare.

Seabiscuit beat War Admiral in match race of the century, at Pimlico track, MD, Nov. 1.

Artist “Grandma Moses” discovered.

Thornton Wilder's Our Town produced on Broadway.

1939

Pres. Roosevelt asked for defense budget hike in Jan.

New York World's Fair opened Apr. 30, closed Oct. 31; reopened May 11, 1940, ended Oct. 21.

Lou Gehrig, seriously ill, said farewell to fans at Yankee Stadium, July 4.

Albert Einstein alerted Pres. Roosevelt to A-bomb possibilities in Aug. 2 letter.

U.S. declared its neutrality in European war Sept. 5.

Roosevelt proclaimed a limited national emergency Sept. 8, an unlimited emergency May 27, 1941. Both ended by Pres. Harry Truman, Apr. 28, 1952.

John Steinbeck published The Grapes of Wrath.

Pocket books appeared in U.S.

Gone With the Wind and The Wizard of Oz films released.

1940

U.S. okayed sale of surplus war materiel to Britain June 3; announced transfer of 50 overaged destroyers Sept. 3.

First peacetime military draft in U.S. history approved, Sept. 14.

40-hour work week went into effect, Oct. 24.

Roosevelt elected Nov. 5 to 3rd term as president.

Richard Wright published Native Son.

1941

Four Freedoms termed essential by Pres. Roosevelt in speech to Congress Jan. 6: freedom of speech and religion, freedom from want and fear.

Lend-Lease Act signed Mar. 11 provided $7 bil in military credits for Britain. Lend-Lease for USSR approved in Nov.

The Atlantic Charter, 8-point declaration of principles, issued by Roosevelt and British Prime Min. Winston Churchill, Aug. 14.

Japan attacked Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, 7:55 am Hawaiian time, Dec. 7; called by Roosevelt “a date that will live in infamy”; 19 ships sunk or damaged, 2,300 dead. U.S. declared war on Japan Dec. 8, on Germany and Italy Dec. 11.

Japanese invaded Philippines, Dec. 22; Wake Island fell, Dec. 23.

1942

Japanese troops took Bataan peninsula Apr. 8, Corregidor May 6.

Federal government forcibly moved 110,000 Japanese-Americans from West Coast to detention camps. Exclusion lasted 3 years.

Battle of Midway June 4-7 was Japan's first major defeat.

Marines landed on Guadalcanal Aug. 7; last Japanese not expelled until Feb. 9, 1943.

U.S., Britain invaded North Africa Nov. 8.

First nuclear chain reaction (fission of uranium isotope U-235) produced at Univ. of Chicago, under physicists Arthur Compton, Enrico Fermi, others, Dec. 2.

1943

Oklahoma! opened Mar. 31 on Broadway.

War contractors barred from racial discrimination, May 27.

Pres. Roosevelt signed June 10 pay-as-you-go income tax bill. Starting July 1, wage and salary earners were subject to a paycheck withholding tax.

Race riot in Detroit June 21; 34 dead, 700 injured. Riot in Harlem section of New York City Aug. 2; 6 killed.

U.S., Britain invaded Sicily July 9, Italian mainland Sept. 3.

Marines in Nov. recaptured the Gilbert Islands, captured by Japan in 1941 and 1942.

1944

U.S., Allied forces invaded Europe at Normandy on “D Day,” June 6, in greatest amphibious landing in history. Battle of the Bulge, failed Nazi counteroffensive, waged Dec. 16, 1944, to Jan. 28, 1945; 500,000 Americans fought.

GI Bill of Rights signed by Pres. Roosevelt June 22, providing benefits for veterans.

Representatives of the U.S. and other major powers met at Dunbarton Oaks, Washington, DC, Aug. 21-Oct. 7, to work out formation of postwar world organization that became the United Nations.

U.S. forces landed on Leyte, Philippines, Oct. 20.

Roosevelt elected to 4th term as president, Nov. 7.

Federal Highway Act passed by Congress, Nov. 29, creating national system of interstate highways.

1945

Yalta Conference met in the Crimea, USSR, Feb. 4-11. Roosevelt, Churchill, and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin agreed that their 3 countries, plus France, would occupy Germany and that the Soviet Union would enter war against Japan.

Marines landed on Iwo Jima Feb. 19, won control Mar. 16 after heavy casualties. U.S. forces invaded Okinawa Apr. 1, captured Okinawa June 21.

Pres. Roosevelt died in Warm Springs, GA, Apr. 12; Vice Pres. Harry S. Truman became president.

Germany surrendered May 7; May 8 proclaimed V-E Day.

First atomic bomb, produced at Los Alamos, NM, exploded at Alamogordo, NM, July 16. Bomb dropped on Hiroshima Aug. 6, with about 75,000 people killed; bomb dropped on Nagasaki Aug. 9, killing about 40,000. Japan agreed to surrender Aug. 14; formally surrendered Sept. 2.

Empire State Building struck accidentally by Army B-25 bomber, July 28, killing 13.

At Potsdam Conference, July 17-Aug. 2, leaders of U.S., USSR, and Britain agreed on disarmament of Germany, occupation zones, war crimes trials.

U.S. forces entered Korea south of 38th parallel to displace Japanese Sept. 8.

Gen. Douglas MacArthur took over supervision of Japan Sept. 9.

1946

Steel strike by 750,000 started Jan. 21, settled in 4 weeks. Strike by 400,000 mine workers began Apr. 1 (settled May 29); other industries followed.

At a speech at a Fulton, MO, college, Mar. 5, Winston Churchill employed the phrase “iron curtain.”

Atomic bomb tested off Bikini Atoll in Pacific, July 1.

Philippines given independence by U.S. July 4.

Mother Frances Xavier Cabrini 1st American to be canonized, July 7.

Dr. Benjamin Spock's Baby and Child Care published as 1946-64 baby boom began.

1947

Pres. Truman asked Congress for financial and military aid for Greece and Turkey to help combat Communist subversion (Truman Doctrine), Mar. 12. Approved May 15.

UN Security Council voted Apr. 2 to place under U.S. trusteeship the Pacific islands formerly mandated to Japan.

Jackie Robinson joined the Brooklyn Dodgers Apr. 11, breaking the color barrier in major league baseball.

The Marshall Plan, for U.S. aid to European countries, was proposed by Sec. of State George C. Marshall June 5. Congress authorized some $12 bil in next 4 years.

Taft-Hartley Labor Act restricting labor union power was vetoed by Truman June 20; Congress overrode the veto.

Air Force Capt. Chuck Yeager broke the sound barrier, Oct. 14, in X-1 rocket plane.

1948

USSR halted all surface traffic into W. Berlin, June 23; in response, U.S. and British troops launched an airlift. Soviet blockade halted May 12, 1949; airlift ended Sept. 30.

Organization of American States founded Apr. 30.

Alger Hiss indicted Dec. 15 for perjury, after denying he had passed secret documents to Whittaker Chambers to go to a Communist spy ring. Convicted Jan. 21, 1950.

Pres. Truman, elected Nov. 2, defeating Gov. Thomas E. Dewey in a historic upset.

Kinsey Report on sexuality in the human male published.

1949

NATO established Aug. 24 by U.S., Canada, and 10 Western European nations, agreeing that an armed attack against one would be considered an attack against all.

Eleven leaders of U.S. Communist Party convicted Oct. 14 of advocating violent overthrow of U.S. government; sentenced to prison. Supreme Court upheld convictions 1951.

Pres. Truman Oct. 26 signed legislation raising federal minimum wage from 40¢ an hour to 75¢.

Arthur Miller's Death of a Salesman opened on Broadway.

1950

Masked bandits robbed Brink's, Inc., Boston express office, Jan. 17 of $2.8 mil. Case solved 1956; 8 sentenced to life.

Pres. Truman authorized production of the H-bomb Jan. 31.

North Korean forces invaded South Korea June 25. UN asked for troops to restore peace.

Truman ordered Air Force and Navy to Korea June 27. Truman approved ground forces, air strikes against North Korea June 30.

U.S. sent 35 military advisers to South Vietnam June 27, and agreed to aid anti-Communist government.

Army seized all railroads Aug. 27 on Truman's order to prevent a general strike; returned to owners in 1952.

U.S. forces landed at Inchon Sept. 15; UN force took Pyongyang Oct. 20, reached China border Nov. 20; China sent troops across border Nov. 26.

Two members of Puerto Rican nationalist movement tried to kill Pres. Truman Nov. 1.

U.S. banned shipments Dec. 8 to Communist China and to Asiatic ports trading with it.

Your Show of Shows debuted on TV.

Peanuts comic strip appeared.

David Riesman's The Lonely Crowd published.

1951

Sen. Estes Kefauver led Senate probe into organized crime.

22nd Amendment, limiting presidential term of office, ratified Feb. 27.

Julius Rosenberg, his wife, Ethel, and Morton Sobell found guilty Mar. 29 of conspiracy to commit wartime espionage. Rosenbergs received death penalty. Sobell sentenced to 30 years; released 1969.

Gen. Douglas MacArthur removed from Korea command Apr. 11 by Pres. Truman, for unauthorized policy statements.

Korea cease-fire talks began in July; lasted 2 years. Fighting ended July 27, 1953.

The U.S., Australia, and New Zealand signed Anzus mutual security pact Sept. 1.

Transcontinental TV began Sept. 4 with Pres. Truman's address at Japanese Peace Treaty Conference in San Francisco.

Japanese peace treaty signed in San Francisco Sept. 8 by U.S., Japan, and 47 other nations.

J. D. Salinger published Catcher in the Rye.

1952

Seizure of nation's steel mills was ordered by Pres. Truman Apr. 8 to avert a strike. Ruled illegal by Supreme Court June 2.

Peace contract between West Germany, U.S., Great Britain, and France was signed May 26.

The last racial and ethnic barriers to naturalization removed, June 26-27, with passage of Immigration and Naturalization Act of 1952.

Richard Nixon, as vice-pres. candidate, gave “Checkers” speech, Sept. 23.

Puerto Rico proclaimed commonwealth July 25, after referendum Mar. 3.

First hydrogen device explosion Nov. 1 in Pacific.

1953

Federal jury in New York convicted 13 Communist leaders on conspiracy charges, Jan. 20.

Julius and Ethel Rosenberg executed in the Sing Sing Prison electric chair, Ossining, NY, June 19, for betraying nuclear secrets to Soviet Union.

Korean War armistice signed July 27.

California Gov. Earl Warren was sworn in Oct. 5 as 14th chief justice of U.S. Supreme Court.

1954

Nautilus, first atomic-powered submarine, was launched at Groton, CT, Jan. 21.

Five members of Congress were wounded in the House Mar. 1 by 4 Puerto Rican independence supporters who fired at random from a spectators' gallery.

At televised Army-McCarthy hearings, Apr. 22-June 17, before a Senate subcommittee, Army officials accused Sen. Joseph McCarthy (R, WI) of seeking preferential treatment for a draftee, and McCarthy accused the Army of hindering probe of Communist infiltration into the Army.

Racial segregation in public schools unanimously ruled unconstitutional by Supreme Court May 17, in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka.

Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) formed by defense pact signed in Manila Sept. 8 by U.S., Britain, France, Australia, New Zealand, Philippines, Pakistan, and Thailand.

Condemnation of Sen. McCarthy voted by Senate, 67-22, Dec. 2, for abuse of the Senate during hearings and debates.

Ernest Hemingway won Nobel Prize.

1955

U.S. agreed Feb. 12 to help train South Vietnamese army.

Supreme Court ordered “all deliberate speed” in integration of public schools, May 31.

A summit meeting of leaders of U.S., Britain, France, and USSR took place July 18-23 in Geneva, Switzerland.

Rosa Parks refused Dec. 1 to give her seat to a white man on a bus in Montgomery, AL. Bus segregation ordinance declared unconstitutional by a federal court following boycott organized by Rev. Martin Luther King Jr.

America's 2 largest labor organizations merged Dec. 5, creating the AFL-CIO.

1956

Massive resistance to Supreme Court desegregation rulings was called for Mar. 12 by 101 Southern congressmen.

U.S. Supreme Court, Apr. 23, unanimously ruled against racial segregation on intrastate buses.

Federal-Aid Highway Act signed June 29, inaugurating interstate highway system.

First transatlantic telephone cable activated Sept. 25.

On Oct. 8, in Game 5, Yankee right-hander Don Larsen pitched the only World Series perfect game.

My Fair Lady opened on Broadway in Mar., Eugene O'Neill's Long Day's Journey Into Night opened in Nov.

1957

Congress approved first civil rights bill for blacks since Reconstruction, Apr. 29, to protect voting rights.

The U.S. surgeon general July 12 said studies showed a “direct link” between cigarette smoking and lung cancer.

National Guardsmen, called out by Arkansas Gov. Orval Faubus Sept. 4, barred 9 black students from entering all-white high school in Little Rock. Faubus complied Sept. 21 with federal court order to remove Guardsmen, but the blacks were ordered to withdraw by local authorities. Pres. Eisenhower sent troops Sept. 24 to enforce court order.

Jack Kerouac published On the Road.

1958

First U.S. earth satellite to go into orbit, Explorer I, launched by Army Jan. 31 at Cape Canaveral, FL; discovered Van Allen radiation belt.

U.S. Marines sent to Lebanon to protect elected government from threatened overthrow July-Oct.

Nuclear sub Nautilus made first undersea crossing of the North Pole Aug. 5.

Presidential aide Sherman Adams resigned Sept. 22 over a scandal involving alleged improper gifts.

First domestic jet airline passenger service in U.S. opened by National Airlines Dec. 10 between New York and Miami.

1959

Alaska admitted as 49th state, Jan. 3; Hawaii admitted as 50th Aug. 21.

St. Lawrence Seaway opened Apr. 25.

Vice Pres. Richard Nixon, on tour of USSR, held so-called kitchen debate, July 24, with Soviet Prem. Nikita Khrushchev at U.S. exhibit in Moscow.

Prem. Khrushchev paid unprecedented visit to U.S. Sept. 15-27; made transcontinental tour.

Pres. Eisenhower issued an injunction Oct. 12, upheld and made effective by the Supreme Court Nov. 7, ending a record 116-day steel strike.

In a quiz show scandal, Columbia Univ. Prof. Charles Van Doren admitted to a U.S. House subcommittee Nov. 2 that he had been coached before appearances on NBC-TV's 21 in 1956; he had won $129,000.

1960

Sit-ins began Feb. 1 when 4 black college students in Greensboro, NC, refused to move from a Woolworth lunch counter when denied service. By Sept. 1961 over 70,000 students, whites and blacks, had participated in sit-ins.

Congress approved a strong voting rights act Apr. 21.

A U.S. U-2 reconnaissance plane was shot down in the Soviet Union May 1; pilot Gary Powers captured. The incident led to cancellation of a Paris summit conference.

Vice Pres. Richard Nixon and Sen. John F. Kennedy faced each other Sept. 26 in the first in a series of televised debates. Kennedy defeated Nixon to win presidency, Nov. 8.

U.S. announced Dec. 15 it backed rightist group in Laos, which took power the next day.

1961

U.S. severed diplomatic and consular relations with Cuba Jan. 3, after disputes over nationalizations of U.S. firms, U.S. military presence at Guantanamo base. Invasion of Cuba's Bay of Pigs Apr. 17 by Cuban exiles directed by U.S. unsuccessfully attempted to overthrow the regime of Prem. Fidel Castro.

Peace Corps created by executive order, Mar. 1.

23rd Amendment, giving District of Columbia citizens the right to vote in presidential elections, ratified Mar. 29.

Commander Alan B. Shepard Jr. was rocketed from Cape Canaveral, FL, in a Mercury capsule May 5, in first U.S.-crewed suborbital space flight.

“Freedom Rides” from Washington, DC, across deep South were launched May 20 to protest segregation in interstate transportation.

Pres. Kennedy, May 27, signed bill creating Alliance for Progress, for Latin America.

John Updike's Rabbit, Run published.

1962

Lt. Col. John H. Glenn Jr. became first American in orbit Feb. 20 when he circled the earth 3 times in the Mercury capsule Friendship 7.

Pres. John F. Kennedy said Feb. 14 that U.S. military advisers in Vietnam would fire if fired upon.

In Baker v. Carr, Mar. 26, Supreme Court backed “one-man one-vote” apportionment of seats in state legislatures.

James Meredith became first black student at University of Mississippi Oct. 1 after 3,000 troops put down riots.

A Soviet offensive missile buildup in Cuba was revealed Oct. 22 by Pres. Kennedy, who ordered a naval and air quarantine on shipment of offensive military equipment to the island. He and Soviet Prem. Khrushchev agreed Oct. 28 on formula to end crisis. Kennedy announced Nov. 2 that missile bases in Cuba were being dismantled.

Rachel Carson's Silent Spring launched environmentalist movement.

1963

In Gideon v. Wainwright, Mar. 18, Supreme Court ruled that all criminal defendants must have counsel.

University of Alabama desegregated after Gov. George Wallace stepped aside when confronted by federally deployed National Guard troops June 11.

Civil rights leader Medgar Evers assassinated June 12.

Supreme Court ruled, June 17 that laws requiring recitation of the Lord's Prayer or Bible verses in public schools were unconstitutional.

President Kennedy, on Europe trip, addressed huge crowd in West Berlin, June 23.

A limited nuclear test-ban treaty was agreed upon July 25 by the U.S., the Soviet Union, and Britain.

March for civil rights began May 2 in Birmingham, AL, led to desegegregation accord, which in turn sparked rioting and violence.

On Aug. 28, 200,000 joined in March on Washington, DC, in support of black demands for equal rights led by Rev. Martin Luther King Jr.; highlight was “I have a dream” speech by King.

16th St. Baptist Church in Birmingham, AL, bombed Sept. 15 in racial violence; 4 black girls killed.

South Vietnam Pres. Ngo Dinh Diem assassinated Nov. 2; U.S. had earlier withdrawn support.

Pres. Kennedy shot and fatally wounded Nov. 22 as he rode in a motorcade through downtown Dallas, TX. Vice Pres. Lyndon B. Johnson sworn in as president. Lee Harvey Oswald arrested and charged with the murder; he was shot and fatally wounded Nov. 24. Jack Ruby, a nightclub owner, was convicted of Oswald's murder; he died in 1967, while awaiting retrial following reversal of his conviction.

Betty Friedan's Feminine Mystique was published.

1964

Panama suspended relations with U.S. Jan. 9 after riots. U.S. offered Dec. 18 to negotiate a new canal treaty.

The Beatles arrived in U.S. for first time, appeared Feb. 9 on CBS-TV's Ed Sullivan Show.

Supreme Court ordered Feb. 17 that congressional districts have equal populations.

U.S. reported May 27 it was sending military planes to Laos.

Omnibus civil rights bill signed by Pres. Johnson July 2, banning discrimination in voting, jobs, public accommodations.

Three civil rights workers were reported missing in Mississippi June 22; found buried Aug. 4. Twenty-one white men were arrested. On Oct. 20, 1967, an all-white federal jury convicted 7 of conspiracy in the slayings.

Congress Aug. 7 passed the Tonkin Gulf Resolution, authorizing presidential action in Vietnam, after N Vietnamese boats reportedly attacked 2 U.S. destroyers Aug. 2.

Congress approved War on Poverty bill Aug. 11, providing for a domestic Peace Corps (VISTA), a Job Corps, and antipoverty funding.

The Warren Commission released Sept. 27 a report concluding that Lee Harvey Oswald was solely responsible for the Kennedy assassination.

Pres. Johnson was elected to a full term, Nov. 3, defeating Republican Sen. Barry Goldwater (AZ) in a landslide.

Verrazano-Narrows Bridge opened in New York City Nov. 21.

1965

In State of the Union address Jan. 4, Pres. Johnson outlined plans for his “Great Society.”

Pres. Johnson in Feb. ordered continuous bombing of North Vietnam below 20th parallel.

Malcolm X assassinated Feb. 21 at New York City rally.

Some 14,000 U.S. troops sent to Dominican Republic during civil war Apr. 28. All troops withdrawn by next year.

March from Selma to Montgomery, AL, begun Mar. 21 by Rev. Martin Luther King Jr. to demand federal protection of blacks' voting rights. New Voting Rights Act signed Aug. 6.

Bill establishing Medicare, government health insurance program for elderly, signed by Pres. Johnson July 30.

Los Angeles riot by blacks living in Watts area resulted in 34 deaths and $200 mil in property damage Aug. 11-16.

National immigration quota system abolished Oct. 3.

Electric power failure blacked out most of northeastern U.S., parts of 2 Canadian provinces the night of Nov. 9-10.

1966

U.S. forces began firing into Cambodia May 1.

Bombing of Hanoi area of N Vietnam by U.S. planes began June 29. By Dec. 31, 385,300 U.S. troops were stationed in S Vietnam, plus 60,000 offshore and 33,000 in Thailand.

U.S. Supreme Court ruled June 13, in Miranda v. Arizona, that suspects must be read their rights before police questioning.

Medicare began July 1.

Charles Whitman, 25, killed 13 students from a tower at the Univ. of Texas, Austin, Aug. 1, before being shot dead by police.

U.S. Dept. of Transportation created, Oct. 15.

Edward Brooke (R, MA) elected Nov. 8 as first black U.S. senator in 85 years.

Robert C. Weaver named secretary of newly created Dept. of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), becoming 1st black cabinet member.

1967

Green Bay Packers beat Kansas City Chiefs, 35-10, in first Super Bowl, Jan. 15 in Los Angeles.

Black U.S. Rep. Adam Clayton Powell (D, NY) was denied his seat Mar. 1 because of charges he misused government funds. Reelected in 1968, he was seated, but fined $25,000 and stripped of his seniority.

Pres. Johnson and Soviet Prem. Aleksei Kosygin met June 23 and 25 at Glassboro State College in NJ; agreed not to let any crisis push them into war.

25th Amendment, providing for presidential succession, was ratified Feb. 10.

Riots by blacks in Newark, NJ, July 12-17 killed 26, injured 1,500; more than 1,000 arrested. In Detroit, MI, July 23-30, 43 died; 2,000 injured, 5,000 left homeless by rioting, looting, burning in city's black neighborhoods.

An antiwar march on Washington, Oct. 21-22, drew 50,000 participants.

Thurgood Marshall was sworn in Oct. 2 as first black U.S. Supreme Court Justice. Carl B. Stokes (D, Cleveland) and Richard G. Hatcher (D, Gary, IN) were elected first black mayors of major U.S. cities Nov. 7.

1968

USS Pueblo and 83-man crew seized in Sea of Japan Jan. 23 by North Koreans; 82 men released Dec. 22.

“Tet offensive”: Communist troops attacked Saigon, 30 province capitals Jan. 30, suffered heavy casualties.

Pres. Johnson curbed bombing of North Vietnam Mar. 31. Peace talks began in Paris May 10. All bombing of North halted Oct. 31.

Martin Luther King Jr., 39, assassinated Apr. 4 in Memphis, TN. James Earl Ray, an escaped convict, pleaded guilty to the slaying, was sentenced to 99 years.

Students at Columbia Univ., Apr. 23-24, seized school buildings in protest demonstrations.

Sen. Robert F. Kennedy (D, NY), 42, shot June 5 in Los Angeles, after celebrating presidential primary victories. Died June 6. Sirhan Bishara Sirhan convicted of murder, 1969; death sentence commuted to life in prison, 1972.

Vice Pres. Hubert Humphrey nominated for president by Democrats at convention in Chicago, marked by clash between police and antiwar protesters, Aug. 26-29. The Republican nominee, Richard Nixon, won the presidency, defeating Hubert Humphrey in a close race Nov. 5.

Apollo 8 orbited moon in 5-day mission, Dec. 21-27.

1969

Expanded 4-party Vietnam peace talks began Jan. 18. U.S. force peaked at 543,400 in April. Withdrawal started July 8. Pres. Nixon set Vietnamization policy Nov. 3.

Earl Warren retired upon swearing in Warren Burger, June 23, as Supreme Court chief justice.

U.S. astronaut Neil Armstrong, commander of the Apollo 11 mission, became the first person to set foot on the moon, July 20; followed by astronaut Edwin “Buzz” Aldrin; astronaut Michael Collins remained aboard command module.

Woodstock music festival near Bethel, NY, drew 300,000-500,000 people, Aug. 15-18.

Anti-Vietnam-War demonstrations held in cities across the U.S. marking Vietnam Mortatorium day, Oct. 15; on Nov. 15, some 250,000 marched in Washington, DC.

Massacre of hundreds of civilians by U.S. troops at My Lai, South Vietnam, in 1968 incident reported Nov. 16.

Sesame Street launched on public TV.

1970

A federal jury Feb. 18 found the “Chicago 7” antiwar activists innocent of conspiring to incite riots during the 1968 Democratic National Convention. However, 5 were convicted of crossing state lines with intent to incite riots.

Millions of Americans participated in antipollution demonstrations Apr. 22 to mark the first Earth Day.

U.S. and South Vietnamese forces crossed Cambodian borders Apr. 30 to get at enemy bases.

Four students were killed May 4 at Kent State Univ. in Ohio by National Guardsmen during a protest against the war. In protest at Jackson State Univ. in Mississippi police fired on protesters; 2 killed.

Two women generals, the first in U.S. history, were named by Pres. Nixon May 15.

A postal reform measure was signed Aug. 12, creating an independent U.S. Postal Service.

Pres. Nixon, Dec. 31, signed clean air bill calling for development of a cleaner auto engine and national air quality standards for 10 major pollutants.

Doonesbury comic strip launched in 30 papers.

1971

Charles Manson and 3 of his cult followers were found guilty Jan. 25 of first-degree murder in 1969 slaying of actress Sharon Tate and 6 others.

Pres. Nixon, Apr. 14, relaxed 20-year trade embargo with China.

The 26th Amendment, lowering the voting age to 18 in all elections, was ratified June 30.

A court-martial jury Mar. 29 convicted Lt. William L. Calley Jr. in murder of 22 South Vietnamese at My Lai on Mar. 16, 1968. He was sentenced to life imprisonment Mar. 31 later reduced to 20 years.

Publication of classified Pentagon papers on U.S. involvement in Vietnam was begun June 13 by the New York Times. Supreme Court June 30 upheld, 6-3, the right of the Times and Washington Post to publish the documents.

Pres. Nixon, Aug. 15, instituted a 90-day wage and price freeze.

U.S. bombers struck massively in North Vietnam for 5 days starting Dec. 26 in retaliation for alleged violations of agreements reached prior to the 1968 bombing halt.

1972

Pres. Nixon arrived in Beijing Feb. 21 for an 8-day visit to China, in a “journey for peace;” a joint communiqué released Feb. 27 called for increased Sino-U.S. contracts.

By a vote of 84 to 8, the Senate, Mar. 22, approved Equal Rights Amendment banning discrimination on the basis of sex, and sent the measure to the states for ratification.

North Vietnamese forces launched the biggest attacks in 4 years across the demilitarized zone Mar. 30. The U.S. responded Apr. 15 by resumption of bombing of Hanoi and Haiphong after a 4-year lull.

Pres. Nixon announced May 8 the mining of North Vietnam ports. Last U.S. combat troops left Aug. 11.

Gov. George C. Wallace (AL), campaigning for president at a Laurel, MD, shopping center May 15, was shot and seriously wounded. Arthur Bremer convicted Aug. 4, sentenced to 63 years for shooting Wallace and 3 others.

In first visit of a U.S. president to Moscow, Pres. Nixon arrived May 22 for summit talks with Kremlin leaders that culminated in a landmark strategic arms pact (SALT I).

Five men were arrested June 17 for breaking into the offices of the Democratic National Committee in the Watergate office complex in Washington, DC.

Supreme Court in Furman v. Georgia June 29 ruled capital punishment as currently practiced was unconstitutional.

Mark Spitz won 7 gold medals in world record times, at the Munich Olympics in Sept.

Pres. Nixon was reelected Nov. 7 in a landslide, carrying 49 states to defeat Democratic Sen. George McGovern (SD).

The Dow Jones Industrial Average closed above 1,000 for the first time, Nov. 14.

Full-scale bombing of North Vietnam resumed after Paris peace negotiations reached an impasse Dec. 18.

1973

Five of 7 defendants in Watergate break-in trial pleaded guilty Jan. 11 and 15; the other 2 were convicted Jan. 30.

In Roe v. Wade, Supreme Court ruled, 7-2, Jan. 22, that states may not ban abortions during first 3 months of pregnancy and may regulate, but may not ban, abortions during 2nd trimester.

Wounded Knee, SD, occupied in protest by activists in American Indian Movement, Feb. 27.

Four-party Vietnam peace pacts were signed in Paris Jan. 27, and North Vietnam released some 590 U.S. prisoners by Apr. 1. Last U.S. troops left Mar. 29.

End of the military draft announced Jan. 27.

Top Nixon aides H. R. Haldeman, John D. Ehrlichman, and John Dean and Attorney Gen. Richard Kleindienst resigned Apr. 30, amid charges of White House efforts to obstruct justice in the Watergate case.

Skylab, 1st U.S. space station, launched May 14.

Secretariat became first Triple Crown winner since Citation in 1948, after winning Belmont Stakes June 9 in record time.

John Dean, former Nixon counsel, told Senate hearings June 25 that Nixon, his staff and campaign aides, and the Justice Dept. had conspired to cover up Watergate facts.

The U.S. officially ceased bombing in Cambodia at midnight Aug. 14 in accord with a June congressional action.

Vice Pres. Spiro Agnew, Oct. 10, resigned and pleaded no contest to a charge of tax evasion on payments made to him by contractors when he was governor of Maryland. Gerald R. Ford, Oct. 12, became first appointed vice president under the 25th Amendment; sworn in Dec. 6.

A total ban on oil exports to the U.S. was imposed by Arab oil-producing nations Oct. 19-21 after the outbreak of an Arab-Israeli war. The ban was lifted Mar. 18, 1974.

The “Saturday Night Massacre” occurred Oct. 20, when Pres. Nixon ordered Attorney Gen. Elliot Richardson to fire Watergate special prosecutor Archibald Cox, who had sought the handover of Nixon's subpoenaed White House tapes. Richardson refused to comply and resigned; Dep. Attorney Gen. William Ruckelshaus refused and was fired. Solicitor Gen. Robert Bork, as acting attorney gen., then fired Cox. Leon Jaworski named Nov. 1 by the Nixon administration to succeed Cox.

Congress overrode Nov. 7 Pres. Nixon's veto of the war powers bill, which curbed president's power to commit forces to hostilities abroad without congressional approval.

1974

On Apr. 8, Hank Aaron of the Atlanta Braves hit his 715th career home run to break Babe Ruth's record.

Impeachment hearings opened May 9 against Pres. Nixon by the House Judiciary Committee.

John D. Ehrlichman and 3 White House “plumbers” found guilty July 12 of conspiring to violate the civil rights of Pentagon Papers leaker Daniel Ellsberg's psychiatrist by breaking into his office.

Supreme Court ruled, 8-0, July 24 that Nixon had to turn over 64 tapes of White House conversations.

House Judiciary Committee, in televised hearings July 24-30, recommended 3 articles of impeachment against Pres. Nixon, involving conspiracy to obstruct justice in the Watergate cover-up, abuses of power and defiance of committee subpoenas. The House voted Aug. 20, 412-3, to accept the committee report, which included the impeachment articles.

Pres. Nixon announced his resignation, Aug. 8, and resigned Aug. 9; his support in Congress had begun to collapse Aug. 5, after release of tapes appearing to implicate him in Watergate cover-up. Vice Pres. Ford was sworn in Aug. 9 as 38th U.S. president.

Ford, Aug. 20, nominated Nelson Rockefeller to be vice president; he was sworn in Dec. 10.

A pardon to ex-Pres. Nixon for any federal crimes he committed while president issued by Pres. Ford Sept. 8.

1975

Found guilty of Watergate cover-up charges Jan. 1 were ex-Atty. Gen. John Mitchell and ex-presidential advisers H. R. Haldeman and John Ehrlichman.

U.S. launched evacuation of Americans and some South Vietnamese from Saigon Apr. 29 as Communist forces completed takeover of South Vietnam; South Vietnamese government officially surrendered Apr. 30.

U.S. merchant ship Mayaguez and its crew of 39 were seized by Cambodian forces in Gulf of Siam May 12. In rescue operation, U.S. Marines attacked Tang Island, planes bombed air base; Cambodia surrendered ship and crew.

Congress voted $405 mil for South Vietnam refugees May 16; 140,000 were flown to the U.S.

Illegal CIA operations described by panel headed by Vice Pres. Rockefeller June 10.

Publishing heiress Patricia (Patty) Hearst, kidnapped Feb. 5, 1974, by “Symbionese Liberation Army” militants, captured in San Francisco Sept. 18 with others. She was convicted Mar. 20, 1976, of bank robbery.

1976

In “right to die” case, NJ Supreme Court Mar. 31 allowed comatose Karen Ann Quinlan to be removed from respirator; she survived, dying in a nursing home in 1985.

Supreme Court reinstated death penalty, July 2, subject to conditions.

U.S. celebrated 200th anniversary of independence July 4, with festivals, parades, and New York City's Operation Sail, a gathering of tall ships from around the world.

“Legionnaire's disease” killed 29 persons who attended an American Legion convention July 21-24 in Philadelphia.

Viking II set down on Mars' Utopia Plains Sept. 3, following the successful landing by Viking I July 20.

Two U.S. officers on routine mission near DMZ slain by North Korean soldiers, Aug. 18; North Korea stated “regret,” Aug. 21.

1977

Pres. Jimmy Carter Jan. 21 pardoned most Vietnam War draft evaders.

Convicted murderer Gary Gilmore executed by a Utah firing squad Jan. 17; first exercise of capital punishment in the U.S. since 1967.

Natural gas shortage, caused by severe winter weather, led Congress Feb. 2 to approve emergency federal allocation program.

Pres. Carter signed an act Aug. 4 creating a new cabinet-level Energy Department.

Elvis Presley died Aug. 16.

FBI Dec. 7 released 40,000 pages of previously secret files relating to Kennedy assassination.

George Lucas's first Star Wars film produced.

1978

Crippling 110-day coal miners strike ended Mar. 25 with ratification of new contract.

Senate voted, 68-32, Apr. 18 to turn over Panama Canal to Panama on Dec. 31, 1999; a Mar. 16 vote had given approval to a treaty guaranteeing the area's neutrality after the year 2000.

Californians, June 6, approved Proposition 13, a state constitutional amendment slashing property taxes.

Supreme Court, June 28, ruled against racial quotas in Bakke v. University of California.

Egyptian Pres. Anwar al-Sadat and Israeli Prem. Menachem Begin reached accord on “framework for peace,” Sept. 17, after Carter-mediated talks at Camp David.

New York's Chemical Bank Dec. 20 led move to raise prime interest rate to near-record 11.75%.

1979

Former Atty. Gen. John Mitchell, last of 25 persons still jailed for crimes relating to Watergate scandal, released Jan. 19.

Partial meltdown released radioactive material Mar. 28, at nuclear reactor on Three Mile Island near Middletown, PA.

American Airlines DC-10 jetliner crashed May 25 after takeoff from Chicago, killing 275 persons.

In a speech July 15, Pres. Carter spoke of a national “crisis of confidence” and outlined a proposed 10-year $140 bil program to reduce U.S. dependence on foreign oil.

Federal government announced, Nov. 1, a $1.5 bil loan-guarantee plan to aid the ailing Chrysler Corp.

Some 90 people, including 63 Americans, taken hostage, Nov. 4, at American embassy in Tehran, Iran, by militant followers of Ayatollah Khomeini. He demanded return of former Shah Muhammad Reza Pahlavi, who was undergoing medical treatment in New York City.

1980

Pres. Carter announced, Jan. 4, economic sanctions against the USSR, in retaliation for Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. At Carter's request, U.S. Olympic Committee voted, Apr. 12, against U.S. participation in Moscow Summer Olympics.

Lake Placid, NY, hosted the Winter Olympics for the 2nd time. The U.S. hockey team defeated the heavily favored Russian team Feb. 22 en route to winning the gold medal.

Eight Americans killed and 5 wounded, Apr. 24, in ill-fated attempt to rescue hostages held by Iranian militants.

Mt. St. Helens, in Washington state, erupted May 18. The blast, with others May 25 and June 12, left 57 dead.

In a sweeping victory, Nov. 4, Ronald Reagan (R) was elected 40th president, defeating incumbent Pres. Carter. Republicans gained control of the Senate.

Former Beatle John Lennon was shot and killed, Dec. 8, in New York City.

1981

Minutes after Reagan's inauguration Jan. 20, the 52 Americans held hostage in Iran for 444 days were freed.

Pres. Reagan was shot and seriously wounded, Mar. 30, in Washington, DC; also seriously wounded were a Secret Service agent, a policeman, and Press Sec. James Brady. John W. Hinckley Jr. arrested, found not guilty by reason of insanity in 1982, committed to mental institution.

World's first reusable spacecraft, the space shuttle Columbia, was sent into space, Apr. 12.

Congress, July 29, passed Pres. Reagan's tax-cut legislation, expected to save taxpayers $750 bil over 5 years.

Federal air traffic controllers, Aug. 3, began an illegal nationwide strike. Most defied a back-to-work order and were dismissed by Pres. Reagan Aug. 5.

In a 99-0 vote, the Senate confirmed, Sept. 21, appoint­ment of Sandra Day O'Connor as first woman justice of U.S. Supreme Court.

1982

The 13-year-old lawsuit against AT&T by the Justice Dept. was settled Jan. 8. AT&T agreed to give up the 22 Bell System companies and was allowed to expand.

The Equal Rights Amendment was defeated after a 10-year struggle, when the deadline for ratification expired June 30.

Centers for Disease Control, July 16, reported evidence of growing AIDS epidemic, responsible for 184 U.S. deaths since 1st reported in U.S. in June 1981.

The economy showed signs of recovery from the recession that began in mid-1981, as the Dow Jones Industrial Average Oct. 13 hit 1016.93, its highest level in 18 months.

The most expensive strike in sports history ended, Nov. 16, when NFL players and team owners settled.

Space shuttle Columbia completed its first operational flight, Nov. 16.

A retired dentist, Dr. Barney B. Clark, 61, became first recipient of a permanent artificial heart, Dec. 2; he died Mar. 23, 1983, after 112 days.

EPA administrator Anne Gorsuch was cited for contempt by the House Dec. 16, after refusing to produce certain documents concerning the Superfund.

1983

Pres. Reagan, Jan. 3, declared Times Beach, MO, a federal disaster area because of toxic dioxin in the soil.

The Commerce Dept. Jan 19 reported that average real GNP in the recessionary year 1982 fell 1.8% from 1981 levels, the worst decline since 1946.

Harold Washington was elected Apr. 12 as the first African-American mayor of Chicago.

On Apr. 20, Pres. Reagan signed a compromise bipartisan bill designed to save Social Security from bankruptcy.

Sally Ride became the first American woman to travel in space, June 18, when the space shuttle Challenger was launched from Cape Canaveral, FL.

On Sept. 1, a South Korean passenger jet infringing on Soviet air space and apparently misidentified was shot down; 269 people, including 61 Americans, were killed.

On Oct. 23, 241 U.S. Marines and sailors were killed in Lebanon when a TNT-laden suicide bomb blew up Marine headquarters at Beirut International Airport.

U.S. troops, with a small force from 6 Caribbean nations, invaded Grenada Oct. 25. In a few days, Grenadian militia and Cuban “construction workers” were overcome, U.S. citizens evacuated, and the Marxist regime deposed.

1984

Seven regional companies took over local telephone service from AT&T, Jan. 1.

On the space shuttle Challenger, launched on its 4th trip Feb. 3, two austronauts became first humans to fly free of a spacecraft.

On May 7, American Vietnam war veterans reached an out-of-court settlement with 7 chemical companies in a class-action suit over the herbicide Agent Orange.

Former Vice Pres. Walter Mondale won the Democratic presidential nomination, June 6; he chose Rep. Geraldine Ferraro (D, NY) as candidate for vice president.

Pres. Reagan signed a bill July 17 cutting federal transportation aid to states that keep their drinking age under 21.

Pres. Reagan was reelected Nov. 6 in a Republican landslide, carrying 49 states for a record 525 electoral votes.

Bernhard Goetz shot and wounded 4 allegedly menacing teenage boys, on a NYC subway train, Dec. 22; later was acquitted of major charges but was successfully sued.

1985

Visiting Germany, Pres. Reagan, May 5, laid wreath at concentration camp site and also at a Bitburg cemetery, where some Nazis lay.

Philadelphia police bombed a rowhouse occupied by MOVE anarchists, May 13; 11 were killed, and fire damaged 2 blocks of houses.

On June 14 a TWA jet was seized by terrorists after takeoff from Athens; 153 passengers and crew held hostage for 17 days; 1 U.S. serviceman killed.

Reversing an earlier decision to market “new” coke, the Coca-Cola Co. said, July 10, it would resume marketing soda made under its original “Classic” formula.

“Live Aid,” a rock concert broadcast around the world July 13, raised $70 mil for starving peoples of Africa.

On Oct. 7, 4 Palestinian hijackers seized Italian cruise ship Achille Lauro in the Mediterranean and held it hostage for 2 days; one American, Leon Klinghoffer, was killed.

For first time in 6 years U.S. and Soviet leaders met at summit in Geneva, Nov. 19-20.

General Electric agreed Dec. 11 to buy RCA Corp. for $6.28 bil.

1986

On Jan. 20, for the first time, the U.S. officially observed Martin Luther King Jr. Day.

The space shuttle Challenger exploded 73 seconds after liftoff, Jan. 28, killing 6 astronauts and Christa McAuliffe, a New Hampshire teacher, on board.

In a 4-day extravaganza in July, the U.S. celebrated the 100th birthday of the Statue of Liberty.Congress completed action Oct. 2 overriding a veto to place conomic sanctions on South Africa.

The Senate confirmed, Sept. 17, Reagan's nomination of William Rehnquist as chief justice and Antonin Scalia as associate justice of the Supreme Court.

Press reports in early Nov. broke first news of the Iran-contra scandal, involving secret U.S. sale of arms to Iran.

Ivan Boesky, accused of insider trading, agreed, Nov. 14, to plead guilty to an unspecified criminal count.

Robert Penn Warren was named by the Library of Congress as America's first poet laureate.

1987

Pres. Reagan produced the nation's first trillion-dollar budget, Jan. 5.

Dow Jones closed above 2,000 for first time, Jan. 8.

The U.S. government, Mar. 20, approved, for the first time, the use of a drug in the fight against AIDS (AZT).

Nearly 1.4 mil illegal aliens met May 4 deadline for applying for amnesty under a new federal policy.

An Iraqi missile killed 37 sailors on the frigate USS Stark in the Persian Gulf, May 17. Iraq called it an accident.

Public hearings by Senate and House committees investigating the Iran-contra affair were held May-Aug. Lt. Col. Oliver North said he had believed all his activities were authorized by his superiors. Pres. Reagan, Aug. 12, denied knowing of a diversion of funds to the contras.

The 200th anniversary of the U.S. Constitution signing was observed, Sept. 17, in Philadelphia and around the U.S.

Wall Street crashed, Oct. 19, with the Dow Jones plummeting a record 508 points to 1738, ending a bull market that began in mid-1982.

Pres. Reagan and Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev, Dec. 8, signed a pact to dismantle all 1,752 U.S. and 859 Soviet missiles with a 300- to 3,400-mi. range.

1988

In a report issued May 16, Surgeon Gen. C. Everett Koop declared that cigarettes were addictive.

Congress approved, in June, the greatest expansion yet of Medicare benefits, to protect the elderly and disabled against “catastrophic” medical costs.

Much of the U.S. suffered worst drought in over 50 years; by late June half the nation's agricultural counties had been declared disaster areas.

A missile, fired from U.S. Navy warship Vincennes, in the Persian Gulf, mistakenly struck a commercial Iranian airliner, July 3, killing all 290.

George H. W. Bush was elected 41st U.S. president, Nov. 8, decisively defeating Gov. Michael Dukakis (MA).

Pan Am Flight 103 exploded and crashed, due to a terrorist bomb, into the town of Lockerbie, Scotland, Dec. 21, killing all 259 people aboard and 11 on the ground.

Drexel Burnham Lambert agreed, Dec. 21, to plead guilty to insider trading and other violations, and pay penalties of $650 mil, the largest such settlement ever.

1989

Major oil spill occurred when the Exxon Valdez struck Bligh Reef in Alaska's Prince William Sound, Mar. 24.

Former National Security Council staff member Oliver North was convicted, May 4, on charges related to Iran-contra scandal. Conviction thrown out on appeal in 1991 because of his immunized testimony.

A measure to rescue the savings and loan industry was signed into law, Aug. 9, by Pres. Bush.

Army Gen. Colin Powell was nominated Aug. 10 by Pres. Bush, as chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff; he became the first black to hold the post.

Pete Rose, a baseball legend, was banned from the game for life Aug. 24, for involvement with gamblers.

Hurricane Hugo swept through the Caribbean and the Carolinas Sept. 10-22, causing at least 40 deaths and $6 bil in damage in the Carolinas alone.

Just before a World Series game, Oct. 17, an earthquake struck the San Francisco Bay area, causing 62 deaths.

L. Douglas Wilder (D) elected governor of Virginia, the first U.S. black governor since Reconstruction.

U.S. troops invaded Panama, Dec. 20, overthrowing the government of Manuel Noriega. Noriega, wanted by U.S. authorities on drug charges, surrendered Jan. 3, 1990.

1990

Junk bond financier Michael Milkin pleaded guilty to fraud related charges, Apr. 14; agreed to pay $500 mil in restitution; sentenced Nov. 21 to 10 years in prison.

Justice William Brennan announced, July 20, his resignation from the U.S. Supreme Court; his replacement, Judge David Souter, was confirmed Sept. 27.

Pres. Bush signed Americans With Disabilities Act on July 26, barring discrimination against the disabled.

Operation Desert Shield forces left for Saudi Arabia, Aug. 7, to defend that country following the invasion of its neighbor Kuwait by Iraq, Aug. 2.

Pres. Bush signed, Nov. 5, a bill to reduce budget deficits $500 bil over 5 years, by spending curbs and tax hikes.

Pres. Bush Nov. 15 signed into law a strengthened version of the 1970 Clean Air Act.

1991

The U.S. and its allies defeated Iraq in the Persian Gulf War and liberated Kuwait, which Iraq had overrun in Aug. 1990. On Jan. 17, the allies launched a devastating air attack. In a rapid ground war starting Feb. 24, which lasted just 100 hours, the U.S.-led forces killed or captured thousands of Iraqi soldiers and sent the rest into retreat before Pres. Bush ordered a cease-fire Feb. 27.

An 8-month recession showed signs of having ended in Mar. The Dow Jones Industrial Average closed above 3000 for first time, Apr. 17

Justice Thurgood Marshall, first black to sit on U.S. Supreme Court, June 17, announced plans to retire.

U.S. House bank ordered closed Oct. 3 after revelations that House members had written 8,331 bad checks.

The Senate approved, Oct. 15, nomination of Clarence Thomas to the Supreme Court, despite allegations of sexual harassment against him by Anita Hill, a former aide. He became the 2nd African-American to serve on the Court, replacing retiring Justice Thurgood Marshall, the 1st black.

Charles Keating convicted of securities fraud Dec. 4. The prosecution asserted that as chairman of an S&L he had induced investors to buy $250 mil in uninsured bonds.

1992

Retail giant R.H. Macy & Co. filed for bankruptcy, Jan. 27. Trans World Airlines, Jan. 31, became the latest major U.S. carrier to file for bankruptcy.

Riots swept South-Central Los Angeles Apr. 29, after jury acquitted 4 white policemen on all but one count in videotaped 1991 beating of black motorist Rodney King. Death toll in the L.A. violence was put at 52.

The 27th Amendment, regarding congressional pay raises, became part of the Constitution May 7 when it was ratified by the 38th state, Michigan.

Hurricane Andrew ravaged South Florida and Louisiana Aug. 24-26, killing 23 people.

White supremacist and fugitive Randall Weaver surrendered Aug. 31 after an 11-day FBI siege at his Ruby Ridge, ID, cabin, during which his wife and son and a deputy sheriff were killed in exchanges of gunfire.

Bill Clinton (D) was elected 42nd president, Nov. 3, defeating Pres. Bush (R) and independent Ross Perot.

A UN-sanctioned military force, led by U.S. troops, arrived in Somalia Dec. 9.

Presidents of U.S., Canada, and Mexico Dec. 17 signed North American Free Trade Agreement.

More than 1.1 million votes were cast in an election to choose a portrait of the late Elvis Presley (died 1977) for a U.S. postage stamp.

1993

A bomb exploded in a parking garage beneath the World Trade Center in New York City, Feb. 26, killing 6 people. Two Islamic militants were convicted in the bombing, Nov. 12, 1997. Four men were found guilty, Mar. 4, 1994.

Janet Reno became the first woman U.S. attorney general Mar. 12.

Four federal agents were killed, Feb. 28, during an unsuccessful raid on the Branch Davidian compound near Waco, TX. A 51-day siege by federal agents ended Apr. 19, when the compound burned down, leaving more than 70 cult members dead. 11 cult members were acquitted Feb. 26, 1994, of charges in the deaths of the federal agents. U.S. agents were cleared of wrong doing in 2000.

A federal jury, Apr. 17, found 2 Los Angeles police officers guilty and 2 not guilty of violating the civil rights of motorist Rodney King in 1991 beating incident.

Defense Sec. Les Aspin, Apr. 28, removed restrictions on aerial combat roles by women in the armed forces.

In a May 14 plebiscite voters in Puerto Rico supported continuing commonwealth status with U.S.

A “motor-voter” bill was signed by Pres. Clinton, May 20, allowing citizens to register to vote by mail when applying for a driver's license or certain benefits.

“The Great Flood of 1993” inundated 8 mil acres in 9 Midwestern states in summer, leaving 50 dead.

Pres. Clinton July 2 approved recommendations that 33 major U.S. military bases be closed. On July 19 he announced a “don't ask, don't tell, don't pursue” policy for homosexuals in the U.S. military.

Judge Ruth Bader Ginsburg was sworn in, Aug. 10, as 107th justice of the Supreme Court.

Pres. Clinton, Aug. 10, signed a measure designed to cut federal budget deficits $496 bil over 5 years, through spending cuts and new taxes.

The “Brady Bill,” a major gun-control measure, was signed into law by Pres. Clinton Nov. 30.

1994

North American Free Trade Agreement took effect Jan. 1.

A predawn earthquake struck the Los Angeles area, Jan. 17, claiming 61 lives and causing widespread devastation.

Pres. Clinton Feb. 3 lifted 19-year ban on U.S. trade with Vietnam.

Kenneth Starr named Aug. 5 as independent counsel to probe Whitewater affair; congressional committees, late July, began Whitewater hearings.

Byron De La Beckwith convicted Feb. 5 of the 1963 murder of civil rights leader Medgar Evers.

Longtime CIA officer Aldrich Ames and his wife were charged Feb. 21 with spying. Under a plea bargain, he received life in prison, while she drew 63 months.

U.S. troops, Mar. 25, officially ended peacekeeping and humanitarian aid mission in Somalia begun in 1992.

Major league baseball players went on strike, following Aug. 11 games; World Series canceled; strike ended Apr. 25, 1995.

Senate Majority Leader George Mitchell (D, ME), Sept. 26, dropped efforts to pass Pres. Clinton's health-care reform package.

1995

When the 104th Congress opened, Jan. 4, Sen. Bob Dole (R, KS) became Senate majority leader and Rep. Newt Gingrich (R, GA) was elected House Speaker. A bill to end Congress's exemption from federal labor laws, first in a series of measures in Republicans' “Contract With America,” cleared Congress Jan. 17; signed into law Jan. 23.

Clinton invoked emergency powers, Jan. 31, to extend a $20 bil loan to help Mexico avert financial collapse.

The last UN peacekeeping troops withdrew from Somalia Feb. 28-Mar. 3, with the aid of U.S. Marines. In Haiti, peacekeeping responsibilities were transferred from U.S. to UN forces Mar. 31, with the U.S. providing 2,400 soldiers.

A truck bomb exploded outside a federal office building in Oklahoma City Apr. 19, killing 168 people in all, in deadliest terrorist attack yet on U.S. soil; Timothy McVeigh was 1st and key suspect arrested, Apr. 21.

The U.S. space shuttle Atlantis made the first in a series of dockings with Russian space station Mir, June 29-July 4.

A U.S. F-16 fighter jet piloted by Air Force Capt. Scott O'Grady was shot down over Bosnia and Herzegovina June 2; O'Grady was rescued by U.S. Marines 6 days later.

The U.S. announced on July 11 that it was reestablishing diplomatic relations with Vietnam.

Former football star O. J. Simpson found not guilty Oct. 3 of the June 1994 murders of his former wife, Nicole Brown Simpson, and her friend Ron Goldman.

Ten Muslim militants convicted in New York, Oct. 1, in a failed plot to blow up UN Headquarters and other buildings and assassinate political leaders.

Shannon Faulkner won a legal fight to gain admission to the previously all-male cadet corps of The Citadel, Aug. 11, though she dropped out after a few days of training.

Hundreds of thousands of African-American men participated in “Million Man March” and rally in Washington, DC, Oct. 16, organized by Rev. Louis Farrakhan.

The federal 55-mile-per-hour speed limit was repealed by a measure signed Nov. 28.

After talks outside Dayton, OH, warring parties in Bosnia and Herzegovina reached agreement Nov. 21 to end their conflict; treaty was signed Dec. 14, after which first of some 20,000 U.S. peacekeeping troops arrived in Bosnia.

Five Americans were among 7 killed, Nov. 13, in bombing of a U.S. military post in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

A budget impasse between Congress and Pres. Clinton led to a partial government shutdown beginning Nov. 14. Operations resumed Nov. 20 under continuing resolutions.

1996

Senate, Jan. 26, approved, 87-4, the Second Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START II).

On Feb. 24 Cuban jets shot down 2 civilian planes owned by a Cuban exile group; 4 killed. Cuba claimed its territory was violated; U.S., Feb. 26, tightened embargo.

John Salvi found guilty, Mar. 18, in the 1994 murder of receptionists at 2 abortion clinics in Brookline, MA.

Congress, in Mar., approved a “line item veto” bill, but it was struck down by the Supreme Court, June 25, 1998.

James and Susan McDougal were convicted May 28 of fraud and conspiracy in the Whitewater case. Arkansas Gov. Jim Guy Tucker was convicted of similar charges by the same jury.

The antitax Freemen surrendered to federal authorities June 13 after an 81-day standoff near Jordan, MT; 4 were convicted, July 8, 1998, of conspiring to defraud banks.

Republicans June 12 chose Sen. Trent Lott (MS) as new majority leader to replace Sen. Robert Dole, who resigned, June 11, to focus on his presidential campaign.

A bomb exploded at a military complex near Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, June 25, killing 19 American servicemen.

On July 27 a bomb exploded in Atlanta, GA, near the Olympics; one person was directly killed.

Major welfare reform bill was signed into law Aug. 22.

Shannon Lucid, Sept. 26, completed a space voyage of 188 days, a record for women and for U.S. astronauts.

Pres. Clinton was reelected to 2nd term, Nov. 5.

1997

Bombs were detonated at abortion clinics in Tulsa, OK, Jan. 1, in Atlanta on Jan. 16, and again at the first site in Tulsa on Jan. 19; 6 people were injured.

Newt Gingrich (R, GA) was reelected Speaker of the U.S. House Jan. 7, but was fined and reprimanded by colleagues for alleged misuse of tax-exempt donations.

Madeleine Albright was sworn in as secretary of state Jan. 23, becoming the first woman to head State Dept.

Harold Nicholson, a former CIA official, pleaded guilty, Mar. 3, to spying for Russia.

39 members of the Heaven's Gate religious cult found dead in a house in Rancho Santa Fe, CA, Mar. 26, in an apparent mass suicide.

Timothy McVeigh convicted of conspiracy and murder, June 2, in 1995 Oklahoma City bombing.

On Oct. 27, the Dow Jones fell 554.26 points, largest 1-day point decline yet. On Oct. 28, the Dow rebounded, surging 337.17 points, largest-yet single-day point advance.

Islamic militants Ramzi Ahmed Yousef and Eyad Ismoil Yousef convicted, Nov. 12, in the 1993 bombing of the World Trade Center in New York City.

On Nov. 19, Bobbi McCaughey, 29, delivered the first set of live septuplets to survive more than a month.

Terry Nichols convicted Dec. 23 on charges related to the 1995 Oklahoma City bombing.

1998

It was reported Jan. 21 that Whitewater independent counsel Kenneth Starr had evidence of a sexual relationship between Pres. Clinton and onetime White House intern Monica Lewinsky. Clinton denied it.

Theodore Kaczynski, the “Unabomber,” arrested in Montana in 1993, pleaded guilty Jan. 22 in California and New Jersey bombings that killed 3 people and injured 2.

The state of Texas, Feb. 3, executed its first female convict in 135 years—Karla Faye Tucker.

2 youths aged 11 and 13 were arrested, Mar. 24, in the killing of 4 schoolgirls and a teacher outside a Jonesboro, AR, school; later committed to a juvenile detention center.

On Apr. 25, First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton provided videotaped testimony at the White House for the Little Rock, AR, grand jury in the Whitewater case.

Monica Lewinsky, Aug. 6, testified to having had a sexual relationship with Pres. Clinton, but said she was never asked to lie. In grand jury testimony and an address to the nation, Aug. 17, Clinton acknowledged an inappropriate relationship with Lewinsky. On Sept. 9, independent counsel Kenneth Starr sent the House what he called “credible information that may constitute grounds” for impeachment.

Mark McGwire, Sept. 8, hit his 62nd home run of the season, breaking Roger Maris's season record.

On Sept. 30, Pres. Clinton announced a budget surplus of $70 billion for fiscal year 1998, the first since 1969.

Terrorist bombs in U.S. embassies in Nairobi, Kenya, and Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania, killed at least 257, Aug. 7. The U.S. launched retaliatory strikes, Aug. 20, against alleged terrorist-related targets in Afghanistan and Sudan.

The House Judiciary Committee, Oct. 5, voted 21-16 along party lines to recommend that the Clinton impeachment investigation proceed. The House concurred Oct. 8, voting 258-176; 31 Democrats voted yes.

John Glenn, 77, first U.S. astronaut to orbit Earth, returned to space Oct. 29-Nov. 7, aboard the shuttle Discovery.

Pres. Clinton, Nov. 13, settled a suit by agreeing to pay $850,000 to Paula Corbin Jones. She alleged that he had made an unwanted sexual advance to her in 1991.

The country's 4 largest tobacco companies, in a settlement, Nov. 23, with 46 states, the District of Columbia, and 4 territories, agreed to pay $206 bil over 25 years to cover public health costs related to smoking.

The U.S. House, Dec. 19, approved 2 articles of impeachment charging Pres. Clinton with grand jury perjury (228-206) and obstruction of justice (221-212) in a cover-up of his sexual relationship with Monica Lewinsky; 2 other impeachment articles failed.

1999

J. Dennis Hastert (IL) was elected Speaker of the House for the 106th Congress, Jan. 6.

Pres. Clinton's impeachment trial—the 2nd such trial in U.S. history—began in the GOP-controlled Senate Jan. 7. He was acquitted, Feb. 12. The perjury article failed, with 45 votes; the obstruction of justice article drew a 50-50 vote, with a two-thirds vote needed for conviction.

Dr. Jack Kevorkian, who claimed he had helped 130 people kill themselves, convicted of 2nd‐degree murder Mar. 26 in one death; sentenced to 10-25 years in prison.

Two men were convicted in the 1998 beating death of Matthew Shepard, an openly homosexual student at the Univ. of Wyoming.

Eric Harris, 18, and Dylan Klebold, 17, killed 12 fellow students and a teacher Apr. 20 at Columbine High School in Littleton, CO, then shot themselves fatally.

One NYC police officer pleaded guilty to 6 charges, May 25, and another was convicted on an assault charge, June 8, in connection with the 1997 torture and sodomizing of Haitian immigrant Abner Louima in a police station.

John F. Kennedy Jr., son of the former president, died in a plane crash July 16, along with his wife and sister-in-law.

The Dow Jones closed the year at a record level of 11,497.12—25.2% above the 1998 close.

2000

Across the U.S., midnight celebrations marked the changeover to the year 2000 on Jan. 1; the feared Y2K computer glitch caused only minor problems.

America Online Inc. announced Jan. 10 that it would buy Time Warner Inc., in the largest merger to date. The FTC approved it Dec. 14.

Teams of scientists from the U.S. and Britain announced jointly, June 26, that they had determined the structure of the human genome.

Following a bitter legal controversy, 6-year-old Cuban Elián González was returned to Cuba June 28, 7 months after he was rescued from a boat wreck off the coast of Florida.

The Justice Dept., July 21, cleared U.S. agents of any wrongdoing in a 1993 assault on the compound of the Branch Davidian religious sect in Waco, TX.

Tiger Woods, 24, became the youngest to win all 4 of golf's majors, with record score in British Open July 23.

17 U.S. sailors were killed Oct. 12 in terrorist bombing of the USS Cole, refueling in Aden, Yemen.

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration announced, Sept. 28, approval of RU-486, a pill that induces abortions.

On election night, Nov. 7, the winner of Florida's 25 deciding electoral votes remained uncertain. The Florida Supreme Court, Dec. 8, ordered a manual recount of all ballots that did not have a vote for president recorded by machine. On Dec. 12, the U.S. Supreme Court reversed that decision. Vice Pres. Gore conceded the presidential election to Gov. George W. Bush (TX) in a televised address, Dec. 13.

2001

Congress, Jan. 6, certified George W. Bush as president by an electoral vote of 271- 266 (1 Gore elector abstained).

AOL-Time Warner merger completed, Jan. 11.

Outgoing Pres. Clinton issued 176 pardons and commutations, Jan. 20, including that of Marc Rich, a fugitive commodities trader whose ex-wife was a financial backer.

George W. Bush, was sworn in as 43rd president Jan. 20.

FBI agent Robert Hanssen arrested Feb. 20 and charged 2 days later with spying for the Soviet Union and Russia.

A U.S. Navy spy plane collided with a Chinese fighter plane over the South China Sea Apr. 1, killing the fighter pilot. The 24 U.S. crew members were detained in Hainan until U.S. officials expressed apology, Apr. 12.

Sen. James Jeffords (R, VT) announced May 24 he was leaving his party, giving Democrats control of the Senate.

Congress approved, May 26, a $1.35 trillion tax cut spread over 10 years.

Oklahoma City bomber Timothy McVeigh was executed June 11 by lethal injection in Terre Haute, IN.

Rep. Gary Condit (D, CA) in a TV interview Aug. 23 denied involvement in the Apr. 30 disappearance of intern Chandra Levy, with whom he had had an affair. Levy's remains were later found in a DC park.

Bush announced Aug. 9 he would allow federal funding of limited stem-cell research using human embryos.

On the morning of Sept. 11, 2 hijacked commercial airliners struck and destroyed the twin towers of the World Trade Center in New York City, in the worst-ever terrorist attack on American soil. A 3rd hijacked plane destroyed a portion of the Pentagon and a 4th crashed in Pennsylvania. Some 3,000 people were killed, including about 2,800 at the World Trade Center. U.S. observed a national day of mourning, Sept. 14.

Congress, Sept. 21, approved a $15 bil bailout package for the airline industry.

The U.S. and Britain Oct. 7 launched a sustained air strike campaign against Afghan-based terrorist organization al-Qaeda and the country's ruling Taliban militia.

On Oct. 7, San Francisco Giant outfielder Barry Bonds hit his 73rd home run for a single season record.

Pres. Bush created a new Office of Homeland Security, Oct. 8, and signed a federal antiterrorism bill Oct. 26.

5 people died and 14 became ill from exposure to anthrax traveling through the U.S. mail, Oct. 5-Nov. 21.

The Taliban surrendered Kabul, the Afghan capital, Nov. 13, and fled from Kandahar, their stronghold, Dec. 7.

Leading energy-trading company Enron became the largest firm thus far to file for bankruptcy, Dec. 2.

The U.S. government, Dec. 11, indicted Zacarias Moussaoui as an alleged conspirator in the Sept. 11 attacks.

Pres. Bush announced Dec. 13 that the U.S. would withdraw from the 1972 Antiballistic Missile Treaty.

Pres. Bush, Dec. 28, formally granted permanent normal trade status to China, as of Jan. 1, 2002.

Taliban member John Walker Lindh, a U.S. citizen, was captured Dec. 2 by U.S. forces in Afghanistan.

2002

Taliban and al-Qaeda fighters captured in Afghanistan were flown to a U.S. naval base at Guantanamo Bay in Cuba, with the first 20 arriving Jan. 11.

A House committee Jan. 14 released parts of a letter from Sherron Watkins, an Enron employee, to CEO Kenneth Lay, warning him the company could “implode” in scandal. Lay resigned Jan. 23. Congress, Jan. 24, began public hearings into the Enron bankruptcy.

In his first State of the Union address, Jan. 29, Pres. Bush called Iran, Iraq, and North Korea part of an “axis of evil.”

Eight U.S. troops were killed Mar. 2-4 in an assault against Taliban and al-Qaeda forces in eastern Afghanistan. By Mar. 6, 1,200 U.S. troops were involved in the mission, Operation Anaconda, which ended Mar. 12.

A final independent prosecutor's report Mar. 20 found insufficient evidence that Pres. Clinton or his wife had committed any crime in connection with Whitewater.

Pres. Bush Mar. 27 signed into law a major campaign-finance reform bill.

A ceremonial last girder was removed May 30 from the site of the World Trade Center towers in New York, signaling the end of a massive clean-up and recovery operation.

Coleen Rowley testified before a congressional committee June 6 that Washington FBI agents had stymied investigative efforts in Minneapolis.

U.S. Roman Catholic bishops, meeting in Dallas, TX, June 13-15, approved stringent policies dealing with priests who sexually abuse minors; revised rules formulated with Vatican approval were adopted by the bishops Nov. 13.

The Arthur Andersen accounting firm was convicted of obstruction of justice by a federal jury, June 15.

WorldCom announced June 25 that it had overstated its cash flow by billions; on July 21, it displaced Enron Corp. as the largest U.S. company to declare bankruptcy.

On July 4, an Egyptian-born gunman killed 2 people near an El Al ticket counter at the L.A. international airport; he was shot dead by an El Al guard.

A dramatic rescue operation July 28 saved the lives of 9 miners trapped in a Pennsylvania coal mine.

Pres. Bush told the UN General Assembly Sept. 12 that he would work with the Security Council to deal with the threat posed by Iraqi weapons of mass destruction.

Richard Reid pleaded guilty Oct. 4 to all charges stemming from an incident aboard a Paris-to-Miami flight in Dec. 2001, when he tried to ignite explosives in his shoes.

Four men were arrested in Portland, OR, Oct. 4, charged with plotting to join al-Qaeda and Taliban forces; a 5th suspect was later arrested in Malaysia. On Oct. 9, the head of an Islamic charity, the Benevolence International Foundation, was charged with funneling money to al-Qaeda.

Former Pres. Jimmy Carter was named Oct. 10 as winner of the 2002 Nobel Peace Prize

On Oct. 10-11 the House, 296-133, and Senate, 77-23, gave Bush backing for using military force against Iraq.

The Bush administration revealed Oct. 16 that North Korea had acknowledged it was developing nuclear arms.

Two men were arrested Oct. 24 in connection with a series of random sniper shootings in the Washington, DC, area that left 10 dead.

Sen. Paul Wellstone (D, MN) died in a plane crash near Eveleth, MN, Oct. 25, with his wife, daughter, and 5 others.

Pres Bush, Oct. 29, signed a measure providing $3.9 bil to the states to fix shortcomings in their election process.

An antitrust settlement between Microsoft Corp. and U.S. Justice Dept. was approved Nov. 1 by a federal judge.

Republicans emerged from elections, Nov. 5, with a majority in the Senate and an increased margin in the House.

Rep. Nancy Pelosi (CA) was elected by House Democrats Nov. 14 to head their caucus in the new Congress, the first woman to lead either party in the House.

Pres. Bush Nov. 25 signed legislation creating a cabinet-level Dept. of Homeland Security.

Cardinal Bernard Law, Dec. 13, resigned as archbishop of Boston after he had been blamed by many for allegedly covering up instances of a child sexual-abuse by Catholic priests.

On Dec. 16, Pres. Bush named former NJ Gov. Thomas Kean (R) to chair a national commission investigating the Sept. 11, 2001, attacks.

Bush, Dec. 17, ordered the Pentagon to proceed with construction of a limited missile defense shield.

Trent Lott (R, MS), just chosen as majority leader in the new Senate, bowed out Dec. 20, amid furor over a comment apparently supporting segregation; Sen. Bill Frist (R, TN) was elected as leader Dec. 23.

2003

On Jan. 10-11, shortly before leaving office, Gov. George Ryan (R, IL) pardoned or commuted death sentences of 171 convicts on death row.

The Senate, Jan. 22, approved, 94-0, Pres. Bush's nomination of Tom Ridge to be secretary of homeland security.

The space shuttle Columbia broke apart in space Feb. 1 over southwestern U.S. during its descent toward a planned landing; all 7 crew members were killed. An official report issued Aug. 26 found the immediate cause was foam breaking off after liftoff and damaging the left wing; it also cited a “broken safety culture” at NASA.

The Senate, Mar. 6, approved, 95-0, the Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty signed in 2002 by leaders of the U.S. and Russia. It required the 2 countries to reduce their deployed nuclear warheads to 1,700-2,200 by 2012.

On Apr. 3, U.S. Marines crossed the Tigris River and moved close to Baghdad. By Apr. 8, major government buildings had been occupied and organized resistance had dropped away. With the collapse of the regime, services in major cities were disrupted, and looting became widespread. Pres. Bush, speaking from the aircraft carrier Abraham Lincoln, declared on May 1 that major combat operations had ended. However, insurgents continued to mount attacks against both military and civilan targets.

Nine Democrats seeking their party's nomination for president in 2004 debated in Columbia, SC, May 3.

The New York Times, May 11, published a long story documenting major deceptions and inaccuracies by reporter Jayson Blair.

Pres. Bush signed a measure May 28 providing $318 bil in tax cuts over 10 years.

Under a settlement in a private antitrust suit brought by Netscape (a unit of AOL), Microsoft agreed May 29 to pay AOL Time Warner $750 mil.

On June 23, the Supreme Court, voting 5-4, upheld an affirmative action program providing preference to minorities for admission to the Univ. of Michigan law school. But the Court, 6-3, rejected an undergraduate affirmative action program at the university that employed numerical formulas.

The Labor Dept. reported July 3 that June unemployment had climbed to a 9-year high of 6.4%. Since Feb. 2001, the economy had lost almost 2.6 mil jobs.

The Senate Nov. 3 approved by voice vote the $87.5 bil that Pres. Bush sought for U.S. military forces in Iraq and for helping to rebuild the country. The House had given its approval, 298-121, on Oct. 31.

A U.S.-led military offensive aimed at ousting Saddam Hussein in Iraq got underway Mar. 19, when 40 Tomahawk cruise missiles hit targets in Baghdad; strikes continued in succeeding nights. U.S. forces Mar. 21 seized major oil fields near Basra. On Apr. 1, U.S. forces announced the rescue from an Iraqi hospital of injured Army Pfc. Jessica Lynch, one of a group of soldiers ambushed near Nasiriyah.

Forest fires in southern California in late October laid waste to over 700,000 acres and destroyed 3,000 homes.

U.S. soldiers killed 2 once-powerful sons of Saddam Hussein in a gun battle in Mosul, N Iraq, July 22.

A power failure spread rapidly through Ohio, Michigan, and the Northeast, as well as eastern Canada, on Aug. 14. Some 50 mil people in 8 states and the province of Ontario were left without electricity for as long as 2 days. John Geoghan, a former priest incarcerated for child sex abuse, was strangled at a state prison in Shirley, MA, Aug. 23, apparently by another inmate.

On Sept. 9, the Roman Catholic archdiocese of Boston and lawyers representing about 550 victims of sexual abuse by priests announced a settlement worth up to $85 mil.

Richard Grasso, chairman and CEO of the New York Stock Exchange, resigned under fire, Sept. 17.

California voters Oct. 7 voted to recall Gov. Gray Davis (D) from office and replace him with actor-turned-politician Arnold Schwarzenegger (R).

The Rev. V. Gene Robinson was consecrated Nov. 2 as Episcopal bishop of New Hampshire, becoming the first openly gay prelate in the Episcopal Church U.S.A.

A Virginia jury Nov. 17 found John Muhammad guilty in the sniper attacks that plagued the Washington, DC, area in 2002; he was sentenced to death. Another VA jury found Lee Malvo guilty of 2 counts of murder in the attacks, Dec. 18; he was sentenced to life in prison without parole.

The Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court, in a controversial 4-3 decision Nov. 18, held that gay couples had a right to marry under the state constitution.

Saddam Hussein was captured by U.S. military forces Dec. 13, in an underground hideout southeast of Tikrit.

The Bush administration announced Dec. 23 that a Holstein in Washington State had tested positive for mad-cow disease; the animal, the first in the U.S. to be so identified, had been slaughtered.

Major stock indexes showed big gains for 2003. The Dow Jones had risen 25%, the NASDAQ by 50%.

2004

Sen. John Kerry (MA) became the Democratic frontrunner in the candidacy for the presidency by winning the Jan. 19 Iowa caucus and the Jan. 27 New Hampshire primary.

On Feb. 1 the New England Patriots beat the Carolina Panthers 32-29 in Super Bowl XXXVIII. During the halftime show, Justin Timberlake tore Janet Jackson's top garment, exposing her breast in what was called a “wardrobe malfunction.”

On Feb. 12, San Francisco began issuing marriage licenses to thousands of same-sex couples. On Mar. 11, the state supreme court issued a stay blocking the practice.

Media entrepreneur Martha Stewart was convicted Mar. 5 of conspiracy and obstruction of justice. She was sentenced July 16 to 5 months in prison.

The National World War II Memorial, located on the National Mall in Washington, DC, opened to the public April 29. It was dedicated May 29.

Photos showing humiliating abuse by American soldiers of prisoners in Iraq emerged Apr. 30, provoking outrage.

Pres. Bush announced June 3 that he had accepted the resignation of CIA Director George Tenet, effective July 11.

Ronald Reagan, 40th president of the U.S., died at his home in Los Angeles June 5. He had been diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease in 1994.

In one of the biggest upsets in NBA history, the Detroit Pistons won the 2004 NBA championship, June 15, after they defeated the Los Angeles Lakers, 4 games to 1.

Connecticut Gov. John Rowland (R), facing impeachment amid federal corruption charges, announceds his resignation, effective July 1. He pleaded guilty Dec. 23 to one charge of corruption.

The U.S.-led coalition formally transferred power to an interim Iraqi government on June 28.

The 9/11 Commission Report, released to the public July 22, summarized what was known about the events of that day and called for a restructuring of the U.S. intelligence operations.

In Boston, July 26-29, Democrats nominated Sen. John Kerry for president and Sen. John Edwards (NC) for vice president.

Lance Armstrong won the Tour de France for a record-setting 6th consecutive year July 25.

The Statue of Liberty reopened Aug. 3 having been closed for nearly two years following the terrorist attacks on Sept. 11, 2001. Extensive security and safety upgrades were completed to accommodate visitors.

Four hurricanes—Charley, Frances, Ivan, and Jeanne-hit Florida and surrounding states in a 6-week period, Aug. 13-Sept. 25. The storms were blamed for over 50 deaths and more than $20 bil in damage in the U.S. Flooding was severe in neighboring states Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and S. Carolina.

New Jersey Gov. James McGreevey (D) Aug. 12 announced his resignation, effective Nov. 15, citing an extramarital affair with another man.

Pres. Bush and Vice Pres. Cheney were renominated Sept. 1 on the Republican ticket at the party convention in New York.

The number of U.S. soldiers killed in the Iraqi conflict reached 1,000 on Sept. 7, including 755 in combat.

CBS, Sept. 8, aired a story on 60 Minutes in which it claimed to have obtained documents showing that Pres. Bush had failed to meet his responsibilities while a member of the National Guard in the 1970s. However, serious doubts were cast on the validity of the documents, and on Sept. 20, veteran CBS Evening News managing editor and anchorman, Dan Rather, admitted on air they could not be authenticated.

The Senate, Sept. 22, confirmed Rep. Porter Goss (R, FL) as the new CIA director.

The Supreme Court announced Oct. 25 that Chief Justice William H. Rehnquist was being treated for thyroid cancer. He did not attend oral arguments at the Court for the remainder of the year.

Sweeping their last 8 games, the Boston Red Sox Oct. 27 won the World Series for the first time since 1918.

Pres. George W. Bush won reelection on Tuesday Nov. 2, capturing 31 states with 286 electoral votes, just 16 more than the 270 needed. In the Senate, Republicans gained 4 seats for a new 55-44 majority as a result of the election. Republicans won a majority in the House of Representatives for the 6th consecutive election. After two runoff races were held in Louisiana, the newly elected House had 232 Republicans, 202 Democrats, and 1 independent.

On Nov. 14, U.S. forces took control of the Iraqi city of Fallujah, after a week-long campaign against insurgents who had controlled the city.

In an episode broadcast Nov. 30, Ken Jennings ended his record-setting 75-game winning streak on Jeopardy!, leaving the show with over $2.5 million in prize money.

Pres. Bush signed an intelligence reform bill Dec. 17, based on findings of the 9-11 Commission. The new law created a director of national intelligence to oversee the nation's intelligence agencies.