(Finn. Suomi), republic, N Europe, bounded on the N by Norway, on the E by Russia, on the S by Russia and the Gulf of Finland, on the SW by the Baltic Sea, and on the W by the Gulf of Bothnia and Sweden. Nearly one-third of the country lies N of the Arctic Circle. The area of Finland, including 33,551 sq km (12,954 sq mi) of inland water, totals 338,139 sq km (130,556 sq mi).

LAND AND RESOURCES

Finland is a country of some 60,000 lakes, the largest of which are Saimaa, Inari, and Päijänne. Projecting SW into the Baltic Sea is the Ahvenanmaa archipelago (Åland islands), which consists of some 6500 islands. Among the principal rivers are the Torniojoki, Muoniojoki, Kemijoki, and Oulujoki. Only the Oulujoki is navigable by large craft. The country consists mostly of tableland, with average heights of about 120 to 180 m (about 400 to 600 ft) above sea level. The terrain is generally level; hilly areas are more prominent in the N, and mountains are found in the extreme NW. Mt. Haltiatunturi (1324 m/4343 ft) in the NW near the Norwegian border is the highest point. The northernmost part of Finland, which lies above the Arctic Circle, is known as Lapland.

Climate.

Because of the moderating influence of the surrounding water bodies, the climate of Finland is considerably less severe than might be expected. The average July temperature along the S coast is 15.6° C (60° F); in February the average is about –8.9° C (about 16° F). Precipitation (including snow and rain) averages about 460 mm (about 18 in) in the N and 710 mm (28 in) in the S. Light snow covers the ground for four or five months a year in the S and about seven months in the N.

Natural Resources.

Productive forestland is the most valuable natural resource of Finland. Spruce, pine, and silver birch are the principal trees. The only natural fuels in the country are wood and peat. Finland also has some rich deposits of metallic ores from which copper, zinc, iron, and nickel are extracted. Lead, chromite, silver, and gold are also mined commercially. Granite and limestone are the most abundant nonmetallic minerals.

Soils.

Gray mountain soils predominate in inland regions. The N third of Finland is covered by peat bogs. The most fertile soils are on the S coastal plains, which are composed of marine clay.

Plants and Animals.

About three-quarters of Finland's land area is forested. Except in the extreme S, where aspen, alder, maple, and elm trees are found, the forests are chiefly coniferous, dominated by spruce and pine trees. Finland has nearly 1200 species of plants and ferns and some 1000 varieties of lichens. Wildlife includes bear, wolf, lynx, and Arctic fox, all found mainly in the less populated N regions. Reindeer, domesticated by the Lapps, are becoming extinct in the wild. Wild goose, swan, ptarmigan, snow bunting, and golden plover nest throughout N Finland. Freshwater fish include perch, salmon, trout, and pike. The leading saltwater fish are cod, herring, and haddock. Seals are found along the coast.

POPULATION

Finns constitute more than 93% of the population and persons of Swedish descent nearly 6%. Russians make up 0.4%; other minority groups, such as the Estonians, the Tatars, and the Roma people (the Gypsy), make up less than 2%. The indigenous people of the Lapps (self-called Sapmelas) or the Sami people, about 6500 (or 0.15% of the population), inhabit the far North (see Lapland).

Population Characteristics.

The population of Finland (2000 census) was 5,181,115; population (2005 est.) was 5,223,442. A density of about 15 persons per sq km (about 40 per sq mi) makes Finland one of the most sparsely inhabited countries in Europe. Approximately 61% of the population is urban, and more than two-thirds of the population resides in the S third of the country. The population growth rate was only about 0.16% annually in the early 2000s.

Political Divisions.

Finland is divided into six provinces as established by the 1997 administrative reform, each administered by a governor appointed by the president. The provinces are Åland (Ahvenanmaa), Etalä-Suomi, Itä-Suomi, Länsi-Suomi, Lappi, and Oulu. Ålandhas considerable autonomy (see below Local Government).

Principal Cities.

Helsinki, the capital and largest city, had a population (2005 est.) of 560,000. It is the intellectual, manufacturing, and trade center of Finland and the heart of a metropolitan region that, including the cities of Espoo (229,000), Vantaa (185,4290), Kauniainea (8454), and several other towns, comprises more than 1 million people. Tampere (200,000) and Turku (174,000) are also industrial centers.

Language and Religion.

Finnish and Swedish are the official languages. More than 92% of the population speaks Finnish, a Finno-Ugric language (see Finnish Language). Nearly 6% of the people, concentrated largely in the Åland (Ahvenanmaa) archipelago, speak Swedish. The Sami(also known as Lappish), a dialect of Finnish, is spoken by the Lapps; it is taught in schools and is used as a language of instruction, as well as in and radio and television broadcasts. The Sami people are Christians (Lutheran or Orthodox). Russian is spoken by a large number of Russian nationals, who first settled in Finland in the 1720s, during the 19th century; in the years of the Russian Revolution of 1917; and in the 1990s after the fall of the Soviet Union. The Tatar language is spoken by some 800 Tatars, a Turkic people of Muslim faith, who came to Finland in about the 1870s.

The Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland is the principal national church, and its members make up more than 85% of the population. The Orthodox faith has been present for many centuries in the country, but it was officially established as the country's second national church in 1918 (under the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople since 1923). After a sharply decrease in numbers following World War II, it regained its stability in the 1960 and the ‘70s and the membership reached about 60,000 in early 2000s; freedom of worship is, however, guaranteed to all faiths.

Education and Culture

After the conquest of the Finnish tribes by Sweden beginning in the 12th century (see History, below), the indigenous culture was to a great extent dominated by Swedish influences, but a strong oral tradition has also existed.Epic folk poems—later collected in what has become the national epic of the Finns, the Kalevala)—continued to be sung to the accompaniment of the kantele, a traditional stringed instrument similar to the zither, and wood carvings and rugs were still decorated with the traditional polychromy and simple, geometric designs. Among the educated, however, Swedish culture predominated. Swedish was spoken and, with rare exceptions, was the language of literature. Because the styles of Swedish art and architecture were largely derivative, many Finnish buildings and works of art reflected Italian, Flemish, German, and other European influences. In the 19th century educated Finns began to revive the folk traditions of their country. At the same time, a national literature in the Finnish language emerged, and Finnish styles appeared increasingly in art and architecture; also, a national school of music, soon to enjoy international recognition, emerged.

Education.

Schooling is free and compulsory for children in Finland between the ages of 7 and 16. Virtually no illiteracy exists. In addition to regular primary and secondary schools, Finland has an extensive adult education program consisting of folk high schools, folk academies, and workers' institutes. The adult education schools are operated privately or by municipalities or provinces and receive state subsidies.

Elementary and secondary schools.

Compulsory education consists of six years of primary schooling and three years of lower secondary schooling. In the early 1990s about 594,200 children annually attended some 4740 primary and lower secondary schools, and about 124,450 students went to approximately 480 upper secondary schools. Finland also maintains a system of secondary vocational education with schools of commerce, arts and crafts, domestic science, trade, agriculture, and technology; yearly enrollment totaled some 201,000 students in the early 1990s.

Universities and colleges.

Finnish institutions of higher learning, which include 13 universities and several colleges and teacher-training schools, had a total annual enrollment of some 121,750 students in the early 1990s. The largest of the universities is the University of Helsinki. Originally established at Turku in 1640, the university was moved to Helsinki in 1828. Among the other major institutions of higher learning are the University of Turku (1920), the Helsinki School of Economics and Business Administration (1911), the University of Tampere (1925), and the University of Oulu (1958).

Culture.

The Finns are a book-loving people, and libraries and museums are an integral part of their cultural life. Amateur and professional orchestras, folk music and folk dance are a great Finnish tradition.

Libraries and museums.

The Helsinki City Library (1860) has nearly 2.1 million volumes. The Helsinki University Library, with about 2.7 million volumes, serves as a national library. Altogether Finland has more than 1500 libraries nationwide. Since World War II, the number of museums has grown to more than 300. The National Museum of Finland (1893), at Helsinki, contains Finnish, Finno-Ugrian, and comparative ethnographical collections, as well as an archaeological department. Other museums include the Mannerheim, the Municipal, and the Athenaeum at Helsinki and the Art Museum at Turku.

Literature.

See Finnish Literature.

Music.

Finland possesses a wealth of folk music and a large body of church music, the former amassed since ancient times and the latter developed since the acceptance of Christianity by the Finns in the 12th century. During the Reformation, Gregorian chant and other existing vocal church music, previously composed to Latin texts, was adapted to the Finnish language.

The cultivation of secular music began in the 17th century. An amateur orchestra was formed in the former Finnish capital, Turku, and in 1640 music was made part of the curriculum of the university at Turku.

The development of Finnish art music began about the middle of the 19th century, mainly as a result of the works and teaching of two German-born musicians, the composer Fredrik Pacius (1809–91) and the conductor and collector of Finnish folk songs Richard Friedrich Faltin (1835–1918). Martin Wegelius (1846–1906), the first important native-born composer, also significantly influenced the development of Finnish art music as director of the Helsinki Conservatory. His contemporary, the Finnish composer Robert Kajanus (1856–1933), introduced Finnish music to Western European audiences as conductor of the Helsinki Municipal Orchestra.

Until the late 19th century the dominant influence on Finnish composers was that of German music. Pacius, Faltin, Wegelius, and Kajanus all cultivated Finnish folk music and incorporated it into their work, but it was Jean Sibelius, a protégé of Kajanus, who created a truly national musical style and won international recognition for Finnish music. Notable among more recent composers are Erik Bergman (1911–    ), Joonas Kokkonen (1921–96), Einojuhani Rautavaara (1928–    ), and Aulis Sallinen (1935–    ).

See also Folk Music.

ECONOMY

World War II left Finland with towering economic problems, including high inflation, unemployment, and an unfavorable balance of trade. In the following decades the industrial sector has steadily expanded—by the late 1960s more persons were employed in manufacturing than in both agriculture and forestry—and the trade balance has improved. Since then the manufacturing has continued to dominate the economy, especially telecommunications and electronic industries. In the 1990s, after the collapse of the Soviet Union, Finland pursued cooperation with West Europe, joined the European Union (EU) in 1995, and became the only Nordic country to adopt the euro as legal currency in 1999 (in circulation since 2002). Finland has a highly industrialized and largely free-market economy. With an annual gross national product of about $30,000 per capita in mid-2000s, the country's standard of living was among the world's highest. Finland's annual national budget included $99.61 billion in revenue and $97.14 billion in expenditure.

Labor.

Finland has one of the world's best educated and trained workforce, due to the country's policy of encouraging and supporting investment in education, training, and research. The Finnish labor force numbered about 2.61 million people in 2005. Employees are represented by labor unions, many of which are affiliated with the Central Organization of Finnish Trade Unions.

Agriculture.

Farming in Finland is limited chiefly to the fertile coastal regions, and only about 8% of the total land area of Finland is under cultivation. The large majority of the farms are less than 20 ha (less than 49 acres) in size. In the early 1990s the approximate annual yield (in metric tons) of the principal crops was as follows: barley, 1,531,000; sugar beets, 1,049,000; oats, 998,000; potatoes, 673,000; and wheat, 212,000. Finland's principal livestock included about 5.5 million poultry, 1.3 million cattle, 1.3 million pigs, 344,500 reindeer, and 120,400 sheep.

Forestry and Fishing.

About 60% of the forest in Finland is privately owned. The central government controls about one-fourth, and corporations and municipalities own most of the remainder. About 34.1 million cu m (about 1.2 billion cu ft) of roundwood were cut annually in the early 1990s. The annual fish catch totaled 82,800 metric tons; about 9% of the total was taken from inland waters.

Mining.

Finland is a significant source of copper, producing about 15,400 metric tons (metal content) a year in the early 1990s. Annual zinc production is about 32,800 metric tons (metal content). Chromite, lead, nickel, silver, and gold are also mined.

Manufacturing.

The pulp, paper, and woodworking industries account for a significant share of the Finnish manufacturing output. In the early 1990s about 1.3 million metric tons of newsprint were produced annually. Production of sawn wood totaled about 6 million cu m (about 212 million cu ft) a year. Other manufactures include heavy machinery, basic metals, ships, engineering products, food products and beverages, textiles and clothing, chemicals, glass, and ceramics. Spurred by Nokia, a major manufacturer of mobile telephones, Finland emerged as a world leader in digital telecommunication in the 1980s, a status that continued through the early 2000s.

Energy.

In the early 1990s about 23% of Finland's annual electric-power production was supplied by hydroelectric plants. About 58.1 billion kwh of electricity was produced annually. Some of the country's energy needs are met by nuclear power.

Currency and Banking.

The euro, equal to 100 cents, is the legal tender of Finland (1 euro equals U.S.$.0.80; Sept. 2005). As of Jan. 1, 1999, Finland adopted the euro, the common currency of the European Union, at a fixed conversion rate of 5.94573 markkaa to 1 euro. During a transitional period, the euro was used for only some transactions, such as stock and currency exchanges, while the national currency was still used for ordinary cash transactions. The markka, consisting of 100 penniä, ceased to be the national currency on Jan. 1, 2002, when the euro became used for all transactions; euro notes and coins replaced the circulation of the markka by the end of the month. Finland's central bank, the Suomen Pankki, established in 1811, is a full participant in the European System of Central Banks (see European Central Bank). The nation's banking system, formerly under strict government control, was deregulated during the 1980s and early '90s. Helsinki has a stock exchange.

Foreign Trade.

Finland's main exports include machinery and electronics, paper, and paper products, and chemicals. Imports include petroleum, transport equipment, iron and steel products, food, and textiles. Considerable commerce is conducted with Germany, Sweden, Great Britain, and other countries of the EU. The country's other leading trade partners include the U.S., Norway, and Russia. In the early 1990s the country's annual imports were about $19.6 billion and exports were about $23.6 billion. Finland became an associate member of the European Free Trade Association in 1961, and a full member in 1986; it withdrew from the organization in December 1994 and joined the EU in January 1995.

Transportation.

A system of canals, connecting Finland's lakes with one another and with the Gulf of Finland, provides cheap and efficient transport for the forestry industry; about 6600 km (about 4100 mi) of inland waterways are navigable. Railroad lines, owned and operated by the state, have a combined length of about 5850 km (about 3635 mi). Finland has about 76,750 km (about 47,690 mi) of roads, 62% of them paved. Finnair provides domestic and international flights; Karair and Finnaviation serve a number of Finnish cities.

Communications.

Finland has one of the world's most sophisticated telecommunications networks. In the early 2000s the country had 2.9 million main telephone lines, 4.7 million cellular telephone subscribers, 1.8 million personal computers, more than 2.5 million Internet users, and 3.3 million televisions. The government operates the Finnish Broadcasting Co., which provides both television and radiobroadcasting services; private commercial television and radio stations also operate. More than 220 newspapers were published in the late 1990s.

GOVERNMENT

Finland is a republic, with a democratic and parliamentary form of government. The country is governed under a constitution that was adopted by the parliament in 1999 and became effective on March 1, 2000; it replaced the previous constitution dating from 1919.

Executive.

Finland is headed by a president, who is elected to a 6-year term by direct popular vote. If no candidate wins an absolute majority, the two leading candidates face each other in a runoff election. The Council of State (cabinet) is headed by the prime minister, who, under the constitution of 2000, is selected by the parliament. The minimum voting age is 18.

Legislature.

The Finnish parliament, known as the Eduskunta, is unicameral and is composed of 200 members elected by direct and popular vote for a term of up to four years. Finland elects 16 representatives for the European Parliament.

Judiciary.

Finland's local court system is divided into municipal courts in towns and district courts in rural areas. Appellate courts are in Turku, Vaasa, Kuopio, Kouvola, Rovaniemi, and Helsinki. The supreme court, in Helsinki, is the final court of appeal for all civil and criminal cases.

Local Government.

In the late 1990s Finland had 6 provinces and 452 municipalities, of which 67 were urban, 70 semi-urban, and 315 rural. Executive power in each province is exercised by a governor, who is appointed by the country's president. The province of Åland (Ahvenanmaa) has an autonomous regime (in effect since 2004) that includes a Provincial Legislative Assembly and a Provincial Government. Military service is not obligatory in the province, and foreign relations and foreign trade are under the competence of the Finnish government. Also, the indigenous people of the Sami enjoy a cultural autonomy that is exercised through their own parliament, a 21-seat body constituted in 1996; it replaced the previous one dating from 1973 and that was known also as the Sami Delegation.

Political Parties.

Among the most active political parties are the Finnish Social Democratic party (1899), advocating state ownership of certain essential industries; the Center party (1906), which derives its support from the small farmers and advocates free enterprise; the National Coalition party (1918), an advocate of private enterprise; the Left-Wing Alliance (1990), which includes the Communist party; the Swedish People's party (1906), representing the Swedish-speaking minority in Finland; and the Greens, an environment-oriented party.

Health and Welfare.

The Finnish social-welfare system provides unemployment, sickness, disability, and old-age insurance; family and child allowances; and war-invalid compensation. Medical coverage has often been dispensed through a person's place of employment, but the National Health Act of 1972 provided for the establishment of health centers in all municipalities, and also provided for the elimination of doctors' fees.

In the early 1990s, life expectancy at birth averaged 79 years for women and 71 for men; the infant mortality rate of 4.4 per 1000 live births was among the lowest in the world. A comprehensive, government-sponsored vaccination program has virtually eradicated measles, German measles, and mumps in Finland.

Defense.

Military service for up to 11 months is compulsory for all males 17 years of age or over. Finland has an army, a navy, and an air force, but the armed forces are restricted by the Paris Peace Treaty of 1947 to maximum personnel of 41,900; in the early 1990s about 32,800 persons were in the armed services. Reserves total about 700,000.

International Organizations.

In addition to its membership in the EU, Finland is a member of the United Nations (UN), the Nordic Council; the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the Organization for Security and Economic Cooperation in Europe, the World Trade Organization, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) Partnership for Peace program, and the Council of Europe (see Europe, Council of).

HISTORY

The earliest traces of human habitation in Finland date from about 8000 bc, when the Ice Age was retreating. These primitive hunters and gatherers probably arrived from the east. Pottery making characterized another type of Stone Age culture (starting c. 3000 bc) known as the Comb-Ceramic; its practitioners were of a different origin. The succeeding Battle-Ax culture (1800–1600 bc) may have been brought to Finland by an Indo-European speaking-people from a more southerly Baltic region; these people were able navigators and also introduced agriculture. A merger of the Battle-Ax people and the previous dwellers resulted in the so-called Kiukainen culture (1600–1200 bc).

The Bronze Age began in Finland about 1300 bc. During the first part of the pre-Christian era and the following centuries, people speaking a Finno-Ugric language migrated in from the east and from Estonia in the south. This period marks the introduction of the Iron Age in Finland.

The Viking Age.

During the Viking Age the Finns became exposed to both eastern and western influences. Vikings from Sweden used the Åland Islands (colonized by Swedes in the 6th cent. ad) as a base for their journeys of pillage and trade into Russia as far south as the Black Sea. Although they did not actually participate in these Viking expeditions, the Finns benefited by the growing contact and the establishment of trading colonies in their country by merchants from Sweden and Gotland. At the end of the 11th century three Finnish tribes had spread as far north as the 62d parallel: the Finns proper in the southwest, the Tavastians in the interior lake district, and the Karelians to the east. Lapps were also living in the wilderness to the north.

The Swedish Conquest.

The conversion of the Finnish tribes to Christianity was initiated both from the Orthodox East and Roman Catholic Sweden. It proceeded for more than two centuries, from 1050 to about 1300. The Lapps became Christians at an even later date.

According to tradition, Nicholas Breakspear, an English cardinal who became Pope Adrian IV, encouraged the Swedish king Eric (r. 1150–60) to cross the Baltic with a strong force in 1155. His goal was not only to convert the heathen but also to gain economic and political ends. King Eric defeated the Finnish tribes but was not able to make his conquest permanent. An English clergyman, Henry (fl. 1152–56), who had been bishop of Uppsala in Sweden, remained in Finland. He was slain within the year and subsequently became the patron saint of the city Turku (Swed. Åbo) and of all the Finns.

A papal bull of 1172 (or 1171) proposed that the Swedes hold Finland in subjection by building fortresses with permanent garrisons; in time, the Swedes subdued the Finns and the Tavastians, achieved control of Finland's foreign trade, and established the Christian religion. The church was placed on a firm foundation when an episcopal see was established at Turku in 1209 (a Dominican monastery was founded there in 1249). In 1216 the pope confirmed Swedish title to those parts of Finland that were already conquered and also to mission territories in the east and north. A solid basis for Swedish rule was laid by the Earl Birger (fl. 1238–66), who dispatched a “crusade” in 1249 and built a fortress in Tavastia in central Finland as a protection against Russian incursions. When the ruler of Novgorod in Russia invaded Tavastia again in 1292, the Swedes sent a force into Karelia as far as the Neva River. A treaty of 1323 divided Karelia between Sweden and Novgorod.

In 1362 the Finnish people were given the same rights within the monarchy as the people of Sweden. When Queen Margaret I established the Kalmar Union in 1397, Finland was drawn into the dynastic politics of the Scandinavian countries. All during the 15th and 16th centuries most of Finland was administered as fiefs by Swedish noblemen, who levied heavy taxes on the people. Numerous Swedes—farmers, fishers, and merchants—settled in Finland at this time.

A Swedish Duchy.

King Gustav I Vasa attempted to institute economic and administrative reforms. At the Diet of Västerås in 1527 the Swedes essentially broke with Rome, although they did not formally accept the doctrines of Martin Luther until several years later. During this time much land and property in Finland was taken over by the Crown. During a war (1555–57) against Ivan IV Vasilievich (The Terrible), of Russia, Finland was made a Swedish duchy and given as a fief to the future king of Sweden John III. In the 25 years between 1570 and 1595 Finland was involved in constant warfare between Sweden and Russia.

Under Charles IX the entire administration of Finland was concentrated in Stockholm, and a basis was laid for further material progress. Under Charles's successor, Gustav II Adolph, protracted wars were fought against Denmark, Poland, and Russia. War with Russia ended with the Peace of Stolbova (1617), which pushed Finnish boundaries farther east into Ingria.

Great numbers of Finnish soldiers fought for the Swedes in the Thirty Years' War, which also resulted in heavy taxation on the populace. Another war with Russia (1656–61) exacted great suffering but ended with a territorial status quo. The “reduction” (reversion to the Crown of lands that had been given to nobles as compensation for services rendered) of Charles XI benefited Finnish farmers to some extent, but crop failures in 1695–97 caused the death of one-fourth of the population. This was followed by the tragic years of the Great Northern War (1700–21), during which the Russians occupied Finland; at the Peace of Nystad (1721) it lost large areas in the east. During another war with Russia (1741–43) more territory was ceded; yet one more conflict in 1788–90 left the situation unchanged. The idea of Finnish independence from Sweden, however, began to take hold.

Russian Rule, 1809–1917.

A year after his agreement with Napoleon I at Tilsit (see Tilsit, Treaty of) in 1807, Czar Alexander I attacked and occupied Finland. In March 1809 he proclaimed it a grand duchy of the Russian Empire but granted his new subjects all their old rights and privileges. In the Peace of Hamina (Swed. Fredrikshamn) in September, Sweden formally ceded all Finland and the Åland Islands to Russia; at the same time, however, the Karelian areas ceded to Russia before 1809 were returned to Finland.

The country was henceforth ruled by a Russian governor-general, with a so-called senate, which sat in the new capital of Helsinki, acting as a cabinet. In spite of despotic rule by some governors-general, much material and cultural progress was made during the middle decades of the century. After 1820 a nationalist awakening took place centered mainly on a resurgence of the Finnish language. In 1863 the Lantdag (parliament), which had not met since 1809, was reconstituted, and in the same year the Finnish language was granted equal status with Swedish.

Toward the end of the century a shift in Russian policy was manifest. In 1894 the use of the Russian language was introduced in some government business, and five years later all legislation was placed in Russian hands. During the following years the citizens of Finland lost many of their constitutional rights. The Russo-Japanese War of 1904–5 slowed the process of Russification somewhat. In 1906 a new parliamentary system was adopted, a one-chamber Eduskunta (parliament) created, and the right to vote given to all men and women over the age of 25. Another wave of Russification swept Finland in 1908, culminating in the Equal Rights Law of 1912, which gave Russians the same rights in Finland as the country's own population.

Finland was not directly involved in World War I, although Russian troops were garrisoned in the country. During the turmoil of the Russian Revolution in 1917, a newly elected Finnish parliament took advantage of the situation and on November 15 assumed “all powers formerly held by the Czar-Grand Duke.” Three weeks later, on December 6, it voted in favor of an independent republic. The nascent Soviet government had no choice but to recognize Finnish sovereignty.

Independence and Civil War.

Many problems faced the new republic, among them famine, widespread unemployment, and a stagnant economy. Moreover, the population was now sharply polarized between the radical socialists and the nonsocialists, and two armies, the Red Guards and the White Guards, were being formed in the country.

The mounting friction soon erupted in violence. On Jan. 28, 1918, the Red Guards, reacting to a government order to expel all Russian troops, spread a “Red revolution” across Finland, plundering and killing civilians. The government fled to Vaasa, and resistance to the Reds was organized by Gen. Carl G. Mannerheim. He headed the White Guards, who, assisted by German troops, captured Helsinki and, in turn, instituted a wave of terror against the Red revolutionaries. After the country had been pacified, the parliament in July 1919 adopted a new republican constitution. Kaarlo J. Ståhlberg (1865–1952), a liberal, was elected first president of Finland.

The 1920s and '30s were characterized by the rule of various coalition cabinets made up of nonsocialist parties. The Communist party was declared illegal, but Social Democrats made some progress. A nonaggression treaty was concluded with the Soviet Union in 1932, and after 1935 the Scandinavian orientation of Finnish foreign policy was confirmed.

The Soviet Invasion through World War II.

At the outbreak of World War II, Finland declared its neutrality. The Soviet Union, however, anxious to secure the approaches to Leningrad, demanded that Finland cede certain territory in return for parts of Soviet Karelia. When the Finns refused, Soviet armies invaded Finland (Nov. 30, 1939). The Finns, under Mannerheim, fought back and won some astounding victories, but superior Soviet power was decisive, and the Finns were forced to sue for peace. See Russo-Finnish War.

When Germany attacked the Soviet Union in June 1941, the Finns again proclaimed their neutrality, although 75,000 German troops were operating from northern Finland. German use of Finnish territory led the Russians to bomb Finnish cities. Finland then declared war against the USSR, emphasizing that they were not allies of Germany but merely co-belligerents. Nevertheless, Great Britain declared war on Finland in December 1941, and the U.S. broke relations. After a prolonged standstill, Marshal Mannerheim became president in August 1944, with a mandate to secure peace. An armistice was signed on Sept. 19, 1944. Finland ceded the Petsamo area in the north and leased its Porkkala Peninsula in the Gulf of Finland to the Soviet Union. Reparations were set at $300 million.

Post-World War II Period.

The final peace treaty with the USSR was signed in 1947. Reparations, in the form of commodities, were fully paid by 1952, and in 1955 the Porkkala Peninsula was returned to Finland. The new relationship with the USSR forced legalization of the Communist party and a Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance (1948; voided in January 1992).

Foreign policy.

The main thrust of Finnish foreign policy until the collapse of Soviet hegemony in Eastern Europe in the early 1990s was strict international neutrality and friendly relations with the Soviet Union, yet without any reduction in Finland's independent status. This policy, the so-called Paasikivi-Kekkonen Line, was named for the postwar president Juho K. Paasikivi, who initiated it, and his successor, Urho K. Kekkonen, who broadened it.

Perhaps more than any other person, Kekkonen put his stamp on Finnish postwar politics. As prime minister from 1950 to 1956 (with two brief intervals) and president from 1956 to 1981, he assuaged Soviet fears of an unfriendly Finland and displayed a finely tuned sensitivity to Soviet wishes that Finns not engage in activities deemed detrimental to USSR interests. This relationship was derogatorily labeled “Finlandization” by many Western observers, but Finland's position was not as subservient to the USSR as often thought; indeed, Finland remained firmly oriented toward Scandinavia and the West. The Helsinki Accords, considered at the time to mark a détente between the East and the West during the Cold War, were signed in Finland's capital on Aug. 1, 1975 (see Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe: Helsinki Accords).

Internal politics.

None of Finland's political parties enjoys majority support, and coalition cabinets are therefore the rule. This has greatly contributed to governmental instability, as coalition, minority, and caretaker administrations have come and gone in rapid succession (an average of once a year since 1917). Most postwar cabinets have been headed by Social Democrats or Center party leaders. Periodic attempts by the USSR to influence Finland's electoral process generally had a negative effect, as in 1979, when nonsocialists gained at Communist expense.

In January 1982 Mauno Koivisto (1923–    ), a Social Democrat, was elected to succeed Kekkonen. The Social Democrats gained in 1983 parliamentary voting, but the elections of March 1987 brought to power a coalition government made up of Conservatives and Social Democrats. The Conservatives hadn't been in government in more than 20 years, and their leader, Harry Holkeri (1937–    ), became prime minister. President Koivisto won reelection in February 1988 to a second 6-year term. During the 1980s Finland achieved an annual growth rate of 4%, among the highest in Western Europe.

Recent Developments.

Holkeri's coalition suffered losses at the polls in the March 1991 elections, when the Center party edged out the Social Democrats as the largest party in the Eduskunta. The Social Democrats went into opposition, and the Center party leader Esko Aho (1954–    ) formed a majority nonsocialist coalition government. Under a revised voting system, a Social Democrat, Martti Ahtisaari (1937–    ), won a presidential runoff election in February 1994. The Social Democrats, led by Paavo Lipponen (1941–    ), scored major gains in parliamentary elections in March 1995; they retained power, but with a reduced majority, in elections four years later. In June 1999, Ahtisaari helped to negotiate the agreement that ended the air war over Kosovo.

The collapse of the Soviet bloc left Finland free to become a full European partner, joining NATO's Partnership for Peace program in 1994, entering the EU in 1995, and adopting the euro in 1999 (see Currency above). At the same time, Finland was able to adjust its economy to compensate for the loss of trade with the USSR. Unemployment declined from 18% in 1993 to about 10% in 1999, and by the end of the decade Finland's gross domestic product was expanding at a rate that compared favorably with most EU members. The Social Democratic candidate, Tarja Halonen (1943–    ), won a runoff election in February 2000 to become Finland's first woman president. The Center party returned to power by narrowly defeating the Social Democrats in the March 2003 elections. The new prime minister, Anneli Jaatteenmaki (1955–    ), took office in April but had to resign two months later amidst a crisis of credibility over her actions during the campaign; she was accused of having misused illegally obtained classified documents that showed her opponent, incumbent prime minister Lipponen, promising support in a U.S.-led attack against Iraq. A week later, Matti Vanhanen (1955–    ), the Center party's deputy leader and Finland's minister of defense, took over as premier of a new coalition government. In March 2004, Jaatteenmaki was acquitted of all charges. The sitting President Halonen won her second 6-year term in the elections of January 2006. She received 51.8 percent of votes in the runoff against the National Coalition party's candidate, Sauli Niinistö (1948–    )  who won 48.2 percent of the vote.    E.J.F., ERIK J. FRIIS, M.A.

For further information on this topic, see the Bibliography, sections 841. Finnish, Hungarian literature, 985. Scandinavia, 990. Finland.