(Gr., “between the rivers”), one of the earliest centers of urban civilization, in the area of modern Iraq and eastern Syria between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.

As the Tigris and Euphrates flow south out of Turkey, they are 400 km (250 mi) apart; the Euphrates runs south and east for 1300 km (800 mi) and the Tigris flows south for 885 km (550 mi) before they join, reaching the Persian Gulf as the Shatt al-Arab. The river valleys and plains of Mesopotamia are open to attack from the rivers, the northern and eastern hills, and the Arabian Desert and Syrian steppe to the west. Mesopotamia’s richness always attracted its poorer neighbors, and its history is a pattern of infiltration and invasion. Rainfall is sparse in most of the region, but when irrigated by canals the fertile soil yields heavy crops. In the south, date palms grow, supplying rich food, useful fiber, wood, and fodder. Both rivers have fish, and the southern marshes contain wildfowl.

Early Mesopotamian States.

The need for self-defense and irrigation led the ancient Mesopotamians to organize and build canals and walled settlements. After 6000 bc the settlements grew, becoming cities by the 4th millennium bc. The oldest settlement in the area is believed to be Eridu, but the best example is Uruk (biblical Erech) in the south, where mud-brick temples were decorated with fine metalwork and stonework, and growing administrative needs stimulated the invention of a form of writing, CUNEIFORM (q.v.). The Sumerians were probably responsible for this early urban culture, which spread north up the Euphrates. Important Sumerian cities, besides the two mentioned above, were Adab, Isin, Kish, Larsa, Nippur, and Ur (see SUMER).

About 2330 bc the region was conquered by the Akkadians, a Semitic people from central Mesopotamia. Their king, Sargon I, called The Great (r. about 2335–2279 bc), founded the dynasty of Akkad, and at this time the Akkadian language began to replace Sumerian. The Gutians, tribesmen from the eastern hills, ended Akkadian rule about 2218 bc, and, after an interval, the 3d Dynasty of Ur arose to rule much of Mesopotamia. In Ur, Sumerian traditions had their final flower. Influxes of Elamites from the north eventually destroyed the city of Ur about 2000 bc. These tribes took over the ancient cities and mixed with the local people, and no city gained overall control until Hammurabi of Babylon (r. about 1792–1750 bc) united the country for a few years at the end of his reign. At the same time, an Amorite family took power in Ashur to the north; both cities, however, fell soon after to newcomers. A raid launched (c. 1595 bc) by the HITTITES (q.v.) from Turkey brought Babylon down, and for four centuries it was controlled by non-Semitic KASSITES (q.v.). Ashur fell to the Mitanni state, set up by Hurrians from the Caucasus, who were presumably relatives of the Armenians. Mentioned in the Old Testament and on a clay tablet from the time of the Pharaoh Amenemhet I (c. 2000 bc), and as evidenced also by the unearthing (1995) of their “lost city,” Urkesh (a site near the present-day town of Tell Mozan, Syria), the Hurrians had been in Mesopotamia long before they spread (after 1700 bc) in large numbers across the whole of the north and into Anatolia.

Kassite Babylonia flourished, based on a few cities and many small villages in a tribal pattern. Its kings wrote as equals to the pharaohs of Egypt and traded widely.

The Assyrian and Chaldean Empires.

Beginning about 1350 bc, Assyria, a north Mesopotamian kingdom, began to assert itself. Assyrian armies defeated Mitanni, conquered Babylon briefly about 1225 bc, and reached the Mediterranean about 1100 bc. Aramaean tribes from the Syrian steppe halted Assyrian expansion for the next two centuries and, with related Chaldean tribes, overran Babylonia. To secure itself, Assyria fought these tribes and others, expanding again after 910 bc. At its greatest extent (c. 730–650 bc) the Assyrian Empire controlled the Middle East from Egypt to the Persian Gulf. Conquered regions were left under client kings or, if troublesome, annexed. Following ancient practice, rebellious subjects were deported, resulting in a mixture of races across the empire. Frequent revolts demanded a strong military machine, but it could not maintain control of so vast a realm for long. Internal pressures and attacks from Iranian Medes and Chaldeans from Babylonia caused Assyria to collapse in 612 bc. The Medes took the hill country, leaving Mesopotamia to the Chaldeans under Nebuchadnezzar II. The Chaldeans ruled Mesopotamia until 539 bc, when Cyrus the Great of Persia, who had conquered Media, captured Babylon.

Persian Rule.

Under the Persians, Mesopotamia became the satrapies of Babylon and Ashur, Babylon having a major, although not capital, role in the empire. The Aramaic language, widely spoken earlier, became the common language, and the imperial government brought stability; it was oppressive, however, and Mesopotamia’s prosperity declined.

Hellenistic and Roman Times.

After Alexander the Great’s conquest in 331 bc, the Greek dynasty of Seleucus I held Mesopotamia. A dozen cities were founded—Seleucia on the Tigris being the largest—bringing Hellenistic culture, new trade, and prosperity. A major new canal system, the Nahrawan, was initiated. About 250 bc the Parthians (see PARTHIA,) took Mesopotamia from the SELEUCIDS, (q.v.). The Parthian rulers (the Arsacids) organized their empire so that several autonomous vassal states developed, in which Greek and Iranian (Persian) ideas mingled. After rebuffing Roman attacks, the Parthians fell (ad 226) to the Sassanids (see PERSIA,) whose domain extended from the Euphrates to present-day Afghanistan. Effective government with a hierarchy of officials and improved irrigation canals and drainage brought prosperity. Intermittent conflict in the northwest with the Roman province of Syria—part of the Eastern Roman (later Byzantine) empire after 395—and with Arabs in the desert border areas led to disaster when insurgent Arab tribes destroyed Sassanid Persia in 635, bringing with them a new religion, Islam.

Medieval and Modern Times.

For the next century Mesopotamia was ruled by the Umayyad caliphs of Damascus. Hordes of tribespeople settled in the land, and the Arabic language displaced Greek and Persian. Conflicts divided the Muslims, and Baghdad became the center of the Muslim empire under the Abbasid caliphs (750–1258). The caliphs introduced Turkish bodyguards, who gradually took control, establishing dynasties of their own in the area. After the Mongol sack of Baghdad (1258), administrative decay and further attacks by Bedouins and Mongols led to the deterioration of the canal system, restricting agriculture and souring the soil.

The Ottoman Turks and Safavid Persian rulers vied for control of Mesopotamia from the 16th to the 18th century, when family dynasties controlled Baghdad and other Mesopotamian cities. The Turks eventually prevailed. During World War I British troops took the area after much hard fighting. The League of Nations then mandated Iraq to Great Britain and Syria to France. Iraq became independent in 1932, Syria in 1945.        A.R.M., A. R. MILLARD, M.A., M.Phil., F.S.A.

See also ASSYRIA; BABYLONIA; MIDDLE EAST,; UR.

For further information on this topic, see the Bibliography, sections 113. Ancient Near Eastern mythology–114. Egyptian mythology, 646. Mesopotamian art and architecture, 883. Mesopotamia.