integral part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, situated in the NE portion of the island of Ireland. Northern Ireland is bounded on the N and NE by the North Channel, on the SE by the Irish Sea, and on the S and W by the Republic of Ireland. It includes Rathlin Island in the North Channel and several smaller offshore islands. Northern Ireland is also known as Ulster, because it comprises six of the nine counties that constituted the former province of Ulster. The total area of Northern Ireland is 13,483 sq km (5206 sq mi).

LAND AND RESOURCES

Northern Ireland has an extreme N to S extension of about 135 km (about 85 mi) and an extreme E to W extension of about 175 km (about 110 mi). The shoreline is characterized by numerous irregularities and is about 530 km (about 330 mi) long. The major indentations are Lough Foyle in the N and Belfast, Strangford, and Carlingford loughs in the E. A striking feature of the N coast is the Giant’s Causeway, a rock formation consisting of thousands of closely placed, polygonal pillars of black basalt.

The country consists mainly of a low, flat plain in the approximate center of which is Lough Neagh (about 390 sq km/about 150 sq mi), the largest lake in the British Isles. Other important lakes are Lough Erne and Upper Lough Erne. Apart from several isolated elevations, three major areas of considerable height are the Sperrin Mts. in the NW, the Antrim Mts. along the NE coast, and the Mourne Mts. in the SE. The highest point in the country is Slieve Donard (852 m/2796 ft), a peak in the Mourne Mts.

The chief rivers are the Foyle R., which forms part of the NW boundary and flows into Lough Foyle at Londonderry, and the Bann R. The former rises in the Mourne Mts. and empties into Lough Neagh; the latter flows out of Lough Neagh to the North Channel. Among the many other rivers are the Main, Blackwater, Lagan, Erne, and Bush. Because of the generally flat terrain, drainage is poor, and the areas of marshland are extensive.

Climate.

The climate of Northern Ireland is mild and damp throughout the year. The prevailing westerly winds from the Gulf Stream are largely responsible for the lack of extreme summer heat and winter cold. The average annual temperature is approximately 10° C (50° F); temperatures average about 14.4° C (about 58° F) in July and about 4.4° C (about 40° F) in January. Rainfall is distributed evenly during the year. The annual precipitation frequently exceeds 1015 mm (40 in) in the N and is about 760 mm (about 30 in) in the S. The level of humidity is high.

Natural Resources.

The most valuable natural resources of Northern Ireland are its fertile soil and rich pasturelands. Natural waterpower is abundant in the country. The chief minerals are basalt, limestone, sand and gravel, granite, chalk, clay, and shale; bauxite, iron ore, and coal also are found in small amounts. Peat is important as a fuel.

Plants and Animals.

In general, the plants and animals of Northern Ireland are similar to those of the island as a whole. The only distinctive plant is a species of wild orchid, Spiranthes stricta, found in the valleys of the Bann R. Distinctive species of animal life include the pollan, a freshwater variety of whitefish found in Lough Neagh and Lough Erne.

POPULATION

The majority of the people are of Scottish or English ancestry and are known commonly as the Scotch-Irish. The remainder of the population is Irish, principally native to Ulster.

English is the country’s sole official language. Unlike the Republic of Ireland, Northern Ireland does not encourage the use of the Gaelic language.

Population Characteristics.

The population of Northern Ireland (1991 prelim.) was 1,583,000; in 2001 it was 1,685,267. The population is predominantly urban. The overall density was about 125 persons per sq km (about 324 per sq mi). The population is unevenly distributed, with greater concentrations in the E half.

Political Divisions and Principal Cities.

Northern Ireland is divided into 26 districts. Each district is governed by an elected council.

The capital and largest city of Northern Ireland is Belfast (pop., 2001 est., 277,170), which is surrounded by such substantial industries as shipbuilding and textiles. The other major city in Northern Ireland is Londonderry (105,335), also called Derry.

Religion.

The population of Northern Ireland is predominantly Protestant. The largest single denomination, however, is the Roman Catholic (about 42% of the country’s total population). The largest Protestant denominations are the Presbyterian (21%), the Church of Ireland (15%), and the Methodist (4%). Unlike England, Northern Ireland has no established, or state, church. The Church of Ireland, at one time a branch of the Church of England, was dissociated from it in 1871. Much conflict between Roman Catholics and Protestants occurred between the late 1960s and early ’90s. (See History below.)

Education.

Education in Northern Ireland is free and compulsory for children between the ages of 5 and 16. The educational system is essentially similar to that of England. In the early 1990s Northern Ireland had more than 1000 primary schools, annually attended by approximately 191,000 pupils and staffed by more than 8200 teachers. Secondary and special schools numbered about 280 and were attended by about 147,400 students taught by 9900 instructors. The country has two universities: Queen’s University of Belfast, founded as Queen’s College in 1845, and the University of Ulster (1984), with campuses in Coleraine, Belfast, Jordanstown, and Londonderry. The total full-time university enrollment in the early 1990s was about 17,500.

Culture.

Originally, Northern Ireland was culturally indistinguishable from the remainder of Ireland. With the waves of colonization from England and especially Scotland during the 17th century, however, the N section (known as Ulster) evolved its own cultural identity. Religion constitutes the most significant difference between life in Northern Ireland and in the Republic of Ireland. In addition, Northern Ireland is considerably more urbanized and industrialized than the Republic of Ireland.

Northern Ireland shares the early cultural glories of all Ireland. To Ulster belongs one of the two great cycles of Irish myths that contain the exploits of Cú Chulainn and the tragic story of Deirdre. Despite a thriving theatrical movement in Belfast and much literary activity, no Northern Irish writer has approached the achievements of the writers of the Irish literary revival. Belfast also has an opera and a ballet company.

Major museums in Northern Ireland include the Ulster Museum, in Belfast, which houses a collection of Irish antiquities, and the Ulster Folk and Transport Museum, in Holywood.

ECONOMY

In general, the economy of Northern Ireland is based on manufacturing and service industries and is closely related to that of Great Britain as a whole. In the mid-1990s the country had an annual budget that included revenue and expenditure balanced at about $8.7 billion.

Labor.

The system of labor relations in Northern Ireland is based on the same principles as that of Great Britain. A major proportion of trade unionists in Northern Ireland are members of trade unions that have their headquarters in Great Britain. The unemployment rate exceeded 14% in the early 1990s and was much higher in parts of Belfast.

Agriculture.

Small farms predominate in Northern Ireland, and production includes both crops and livestock. Livestock on farms in the early 1990s numbered approximately 1.6 million cattle, 2.6 million sheep, 594,000 pigs, and 13.4 million poultry. The leading crops included potatoes, barley, hay, wheat, oats, mushrooms, apples, and pears.

Forestry and Fishing.

Northern Ireland is sparsely forested, but the state afforestation program has made considerable progress. The annual catch of fish and shellfish in the early 1990s was about 14,700 metric tons. Saltwater fishing is centered on the E coast, principally off Newcastle; the most important species caught include whiting, herring, and scallops. Freshwater fisheries operate in Lough Neagh, Lough Erne, and Upper Lough Erne; the species caught include salmon, trout, eel, and pollan.

Mining and Manufacturing.

Mining and quarrying are relatively unimportant in Northern Ireland. The chief minerals are basalt, sand and gravel, peat, chalk, limestone, and granite.

Manufacturing contributes about one-sixth of the gross domestic product and employs 20% of the work force. Traditionally, the leading industries of Northern Ireland have been the manufacture of textiles and clothing. Linen is the most important textile manufactured; cotton cloth and fabrics woven of synthetic fibers rank next in importance. Shipbuilding and the manufacture of aircraft also are major industries, and big shipyards are located in Belfast. Other manufactures include textile machinery, electrical and electronic equipment, processed food, liquor, tobacco products, and pharmaceuticals.

Trade.

Most of Northern Ireland’s external trade is with Great Britain, and the currency of Great Britain is the legal tender of Northern Ireland. A large portion of the exports to Great Britain is transshipped to other countries, however. Northern Ireland exports linen goods, textiles, clothing, machinery, and food, notably meat, potatoes, and dairy products. Imports consist chiefly of raw materials and metals, fuel, produce, and an assortment of manufactured goods.

Transportation and Communications.

Northern Ireland has approximately 24,220 km (approximately 15,050 mi) of roads, including 113 km (70 mi) of motorway. The Northern Ireland Railways Co. provided passenger service on 336 km (209 mi) of railroad track. Daily steamship and airline services connect Belfast with the rest of the United Kingdom.

Northern Ireland has three daily newspapers, the Belfast Telegraph, the Irish News, and the News Letter. In the early 1990s the papers, published in Belfast, had a combined daily circulation of about 272,000.

GOVERNMENT

Northern Ireland, an integral part of Great Britain, elects members (now 17) to the British House of Commons. In recent decades some of those elected have chosen not to go to London (usually in order to protest the domestic situation). The Government of Ireland Act, passed by the British Parliament in 1920 and modified by several subsequent agreements between Northern Ireland and Great Britain, is the country’s basic constitutional document. In 1972, however, because of political and religious strife, London imposed direct rule. A 1973 act gave Northern Ireland much local autonomy, while Great Britain retained control over defense, foreign policy, currency, tariffs, and communications. In January 1974, direct rule was relinquished, but it was reimposed that same year. The office of governor and the Northern Ireland Parliament were abolished, and the secretary of state for Northern Ireland became the head of government. The 78-member assembly that met from 1982 to 1986 had only reviewing and consulting responsibility. In 1985, an agreement granted the Republic of Ireland a limited role in governing Northern Ireland and set up an intergovernmental conference of British and Irish cabinet ministers.

A peace agreement approved by referendum in May 1998 provided for a restoration of home rule and for expanded cooperation between Northern Ireland and the Irish Republic. A 108-member assembly with safeguards for minority rights was elected in June. Under the agreement, executive authority in Northern Ireland was vested in a first minister and a deputy first minister (jointly elected on a cross-community basis) and up to ten additional ministers with cabinet responsibilities. The accord also provided for the establishment of the North-South Ministerial Council, which would include legislators from both Northern Ireland and the Irish Republic, and the Council of the Isles, comprising representatives from the British and Irish parliaments and from legislative assemblies in Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales. Both Ireland and Great Britain agreed to relinquish their constitutional claims on Northern Ireland, allowing the people of Northern Ireland eventually to choose between continued union with Britain or a sovereign united Ireland.

Judiciary.

The highest court is the Supreme Court of Judicature of Northern Ireland, which consists of the High Court, the Court of Appeal, and the Crown Court. Lower courts include county courts with criminal and civil jurisdiction and magistrates’ courts for minor offenses.

Local Government.

Northern Ireland is divided into 26 districts for the purposes of local government. Each district is run by a council responsible for a variety of administrative functions.

Political Parties.

The Ulster Unionist party governed Northern Ireland from 1921 to 1972. Other political parties include the Social Democratic and Labour party, Alliance party, and Sinn Fein.

HISTORY

For the history of Northern Ireland before 1920, see Ireland: History.

In 1920, when Ireland was granted home rule, six counties of the province of Ulster, northernmost of the four Irish provinces, were given the opportunity to separate politically from the rest of Ireland and preserve a close relationship with Great Britain. Under the Government of Ireland Act of 1920, the six counties became a separate political division of the United Kingdom, known as Northern Ireland, with its own constitution, parliament, and administration for local affairs. The Irish Free State (later Eire, and now the Republic of Ireland) did not accept the separation as permanent, but Northern Ireland consistently refused to consider a reunion. The boundary between the two was fixed in 1925. Most people in Northern Ireland saw partition from the Catholic south and union with Great Britain as the safeguard of their Protestant religion and dominant position. For many Irish Catholics, the creation of Northern Ireland was simply the latest British injustice inflicted upon the Irish.

Northern Ireland participated in World War II, supplying military personnel and producing ships, aircraft, and cloth for military uniforms. The ports of Belfast and Londonderry were of strategic importance to Allied shipping. Belfast was damaged considerably by air raids.

Opposing Factions.

In 1949, when Eire became the Republic of Ireland, the British Parliament affirmed the status of Northern Ireland as part of the United Kingdom unless its own Parliament decided otherwise. Although the republic still claimed the six northern counties, its withdrawal from the Commonwealth of Nations was a tacit acceptance of the partition. In 1955, however, irregulars of the outlawed Irish Republican Army (IRA) began a campaign of terrorism aimed at securing the union of Northern Ireland with the republic. Terrorist acts continued through 1957 and 1958, gradually becoming less frequent in the early 1960s. In 1962 the government of the Republic of Ireland condemned terrorism as a means of achieving unification.

Persistent economic difficulties through the postwar years led to the formation, in 1955, of a Northern Ireland Development Council, which met with considerable success. By the mid-1960s some 230 new firms had been founded and another 200 considerably expanded. The people of Northern Ireland benefited from the social welfare programs inaugurated after the war by the United Kingdom. More recently, however, Northern Ireland has not prospered, in part due to the violence between opposing factions that has become endemic in the area.

British Presence.

From the beginning, Catholics in Northern Ireland were a disadvantaged minority in matters of employment, housing, and effective political participation. In 1968 they organized a civil rights movement to protest what they felt to be discrimination, often provoking violent reactions. Moderate Protestants recognized a need for governmental reform, but were strongly opposed by a right-wing faction of the ruling Ulster Unionist party. British troops, sent to Northern Ireland in 1969 to help the beleaguered local police, became a permanent presence, maintaining British authority and limiting Protestant reaction—but also becoming the focus of terrorist outrage. In 1972 the British abolished the Northern Ireland Parliament and imposed direct rule. In a 1973 referendum, largely boycotted by Roman Catholics, the voters of Northern Ireland again chose to retain ties with Great Britain rather than join the republic. In 1974 a 15-member Northern Ireland executive, made up of both Protestants and Roman Catholics, was quickly abandoned when it provoked a general strike led by Protestant extremists. Violence increased in the following years. Two Belfast women, Mairead Corrigan and Elizabeth (Betty) Williams, received the Nobel Peace Prize for 1976 for their dedicated but unsuccessful effort to reconcile Northern Ireland’s religious communities.

Continuing Violence.

Meanwhile the so-called Provisional Wing of the IRA maintained steady terrorist pressure, and some Protestant extremists matched them outrage for outrage. In 1979 the IRA murdered Lord Mountbatten of Burma and, on the same day, ambushed a party of British soldiers, killing 18 of them. Lord Mountbatten’s murder was roundly condemned, and by 1981 the IRA was using a new tactic to revive sympathy: members detained in British prisons began a hunger strike, and each resulting death set off a new cycle of violence. The division between the Northern Irish communities meanwhile remained as sharp as ever, with no solution in sight. The intergovernmental conference established in 1985 was welcomed by many as an important step toward cross-border cooperation on security, economic, and social issues, and eventual peace. Protestant Unionists and some Irish nationalists, however, denounced the accord.

Peace Talks.

As the 1990s began, British troops were still patrolling the streets of Londonderry and Belfast, and the IRA continued to launch sporadic terrorist attacks on British civilians and military personnel in the British Isles and elsewhere. In August 1994, as momentum built toward a negotiated settlement, the IRA declared an unconditional cease-fire; when peace talks stalled, however, the IRA broke the truce in February 1996. The IRA declared a new cease-fire in July 1997, and peace talks resumed in September. By that time the conflict had claimed more than 3200 lives.

Good Friday agreement.

The multiparty negotiations, mediated by former U.S. Senate Majority Leader George Mitchell, bore fruit on Good Friday, April 10, 1998, when a settlement was announced. A referendum on the agreement passed with a 71 percent majority on May 22; exit polling showed that the accord had the approval of more than 90 percent of Catholics but a much narrower majority of Protestants. In late June, political groups committed to the peace process won a controlling majority in a new legislative assembly that will eventually assume many of the powers formerly exercised from London under direct rule; one of the assembly’s initial acts was to choose David Trimble, leader of the Ulster Unionist party, as first minister. (Trimble and the Roman Catholic leader John Hume were awarded the 1998 Nobel Peace Prize for their part in the Good Friday agreement.)

Implementation of the accord.

Violence flared again in July when the British refused to allow members of the Orange Order, a Protestant group, to parade through predominantly Catholic neighborhoods. After several days of rioting, a firebomb, apparently thrown by Protestant extremists, killed three sleeping children in the town of Ballymoney, northwest of Belfast. In mid-August a car bomb explosion in the town square at Omagh, west of Belfast, killed 28 people and injured more than 330 others. The blast—for which a Catholic splinter group, the Real IRA, took responsibility—was the worst terrorist attack in three decades of sectarian conflict.

A plan to transfer governing authority in Northern Ireland from London to Belfast faltered in July 1999 when Protestant and Catholic parties were unable to agree on a power-sharing government, as specified in the Good Friday accord. An especially contentious issue was the insistence by the Ulster Unionists that they would not participate in a cabinet with Sinn Fein until the IRA began to surrender its weapons, a demand rejected by the IRA. In September, at the invitation of the British and Irish governments, Mitchell returned to Northern Ireland in an effort to break the impasse. He succeeded in brokering a compromise under which the IRA for the first time agreed to join in talks on disarmament. A power-sharing cabinet was nominated at the end of November, and on December 2 it began exercising home rule authority. On Feb. 11, 2000, however, the British suspended home rule, citing the failure of the IRA to make sufficient progress toward disarmament. The home-rule legislature reconvened in early June, after the IRA pledged to allow an independent team of international inspectors to monitor its arms stockpiles, and to place its weapons “completely and verifiably” beyond use. In October 2001 the IRA issued a statement saying it would start to decommission its weapons “to save the peace process.”

For further information on this topic, see the Bibliography, section 931. Northern Ireland.