formerly MASQAT AND OMAN, independent state, SW Asia, extending about 1610 km (about 1000 mi) along the SE coast of the Arabian Peninsula, bordered on the N by the Gulf of Oman, on the E and S by the Arabian Sea, on the SW by the Republic of Yemen, on the W by the Rub al-Khali (Empty Quarter) of Saudi Arabia, and on the NW by the United Arab Emirates (UAE). The country also includes the N tip of the strategic Ras (cape) Musandam, which juts between the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman; this portion is separated from the rest of the country by territory of the UAE. A border settlement with Yemen was concluded in 1995; Oman's border with the UAE is not defined. Oman has an area of about 212,450 sq km (about 82,030 sq mi).

Land and Resources.

Oman falls naturally into three physical divisions: a narrow coastal plain, ranges of mountains and hills, and an interior plateau. The coastal plain along the Gulf of Oman is known as al-Batinah and is the country's principal agricultural region. Inland from the plain lies al-Jabal al-Akhdar (Green Mts.), where some peaks reach elevations in excess of 3000 m (9840 ft). The coastal plain extending S along the Arabian Sea is largely barren, although some cultivation takes place in the Dhofar region of the extreme SW. The climate is generally hot and arid; however, the humidity along the coast is high. The average annual temperature is about 28.3° C (about 83° F). The average annual rainfall is generally less than 100 mm (less than 4 in). The principal natural resource is petroleum. Other known mineral resources include copper and marble.

Population.

The total population of Oman (1993 census) was 2,017,591; for 2003 it was estimated at 2,851,000, of which around 73% was comprised of Omani nationals. The overall population density in 2003 was only about 13.4 persons per sq km (about 35 per sq mi). The capital is Masqat (Muscat), with a population (2001 est., Masqat Region) of 540,000. The population is overwhelmingly Arab, but significant minorities of Pakistanis, Indians, and East Africans are found in the principal ports.

Arabic is the official language. The majority of the population is Ibadhi Muslim; Sunni Muslims and Hindus form the other major religious groups. The national educational program expanded rapidly during the 1970s and the '80s; in the early 1990s more than 430,000 students attended some 570 schools. Sultan Qabus University (1986) is located near Masqat.

Economy.

In the early 1990s estimated annual national budget figures showed $4.4 billion in revenue and $5.2 billion in expenditure. The gross domestic product was $9.5 billion, or about $5600 per capita. Agriculture is dominated by the cultivation of export crops, primarily dates and limes. Some grains and vegetables are grown for local consumption, but most food must be imported.

In the early 1990s the output of natural gas was 1.8 billion cu m (64 billion cu ft) and petroleum production totaled about 269.9 million barrels annually. An agreement in March 1996, between Kazakstan, Russia, Oman, and major oil companies provided for the construction of a $1.5-billion pipeline that would export petroleum from western Kazakstan via the Russian port of Novorossiysk, on the Black Sea.

The unit of currency is the rial Omani, divided into 1000 baiza (390 baiza equal U.S.$1; Sept. 2002).

A road-building program was undertaken in the 1970s and '80s, and most settlements are linked by a network of graded roads. Port facilities are at Minas Qabus, in Matrah, and at Raysut, near Salalah; Mina al-Fahl, near Matrah, is the leading oil terminal.

Government.

Oman is ruled by a sultan, who is advised by an appointed cabinet. The country has no constitution, elected legislature, or political parties; a 59-member consultative council was appointed in 1991. The judicial system is based on Islamic law. A chief court and court of appeals are located in Masqat.

Oman is a member of the United Nations, the Arab League, and the Organization of the Islamic Conference.

History.

In ancient times the Dhofar region was famous for its incense, which was sold throughout the Old World. In the early 3d century ad an Arab chief from Hira in Mesopotamia founded a kingdom in Oman that retained its independence until the first caliphate. The Omanis accepted Islam in the 7th century and elected their first imam in 751. In the 10th century the Qarmatians conquered the country, and it was later occupied by the Seljuks.

The Portuguese in 1507 were the first Europeans to arrive. They captured Masqat but were contested by the British, the Dutch, and the Iranians. The Portuguese were driven out of Masqat in 1650, and in 1741 Imam Ahmed bin Said (d. 1783), founder of the present dynasty, expelled the Iranians. In 1861 the ruler took the title of sultan. Special relations with Great Britain were established in the late 19th century.

In 1913 rivalry between the imam and the sultan broke out in rebellion by inland tribes supporting the imam. Peace was restored in 1920 and lasted until 1954, when a succeeding imam began a new rebellion, aided by Egypt and Saudi Arabia. With British help, however, the sultan's forces put down the rebellion by 1959.

The ruling sultan, Said bin Taimur (1910–72), who acceded to the throne in 1932, was overthrown by his son, Qabus bin Said (1940–    ), in a palace coup in 1970. The new ruler liberalized the regime and increased spending on development. He changed the name of the country from Masqat and Oman to Oman to symbolize its unity, but was long plagued by a divisive guerrilla war by Marxist rebels in the Dhofar. Concerned about the country's safety after the Iranian revolution and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979, and faced with growing Soviet influence in the area, the sultan in 1980 signed an agreement with the U.S. providing for military assistance in return for U.S. access to Omani bases. Defense agreements with neighboring Arab states were made in 1982. Demarcation of Oman's border with Yemen was completed in 1995.

For further information on this topic, see the Bibliography, section 1046. Arabia.