school of philosophy, founded in ancient Greece, opposed to Epicureanism in its views of life and duty. The Stoic philosophy was developed from that of the Cynics, whose Greek founder, Antisthenes, had been a disciple of Socrates.

History.

The Stoic school was established at Athens about 300 bc by Zeno of Citium in Cyprus. Zeno, who derived much of his philosophy from Crates of Thebes (365?–285 bc), opened his school in a colonnade known as the Stoa Poikilf (“painted porch”). Among his disciples was Cleanthes of Assos in the Troad (area surrounding ancient Troy), whose extant “Hymn to Zeus” sets forth the unity, omnipotence, and moral government of the supreme deity. Cleanthes was followed by Chrysippus (c. 280– 206 bc) of Soli in Cilicia. These three represent the first period (300–200 bc) of Stoic philosophy.

The second period (200–50 bc) embraced the general promulgation of the philosophy and its introduction to the Romans. Chrysippus was succeeded by Zeno of Tarsus (fl. 206 bc) and Diogenes of Babylonia (fl. 155 bc); then followed Antipater of Tarsus (fl. 133 bc), who taught Panaetius of Rhodes (c. 185–109 bc). Panaetius introduced Stoicism to Rome; among Panaetius's pupils was Posidonius (c. 135–51 bc) of Apamea in Syria, who was the teacher of the orator Marcus Tullius Cicero.

The third period of Stoicism was Roman. In this period outstanding Stoics included Cato the Younger and, during the empire, the three Stoic philosophers whose writings are extant, namely, Lucius Annaeus Seneca, Epictetus, and the emperor Marcus Aurelius.

Principles.

Stoicism was the most influential philosophy in the Roman Empire during the period preceding the rise of Christianity. The Stoics, like the Epicureans, emphasized ethics as the main field of knowledge, but they also developed theories of logic and natural science to support their ethical doctrines. Their most important contribution to logic was the discovery of the hypothetical syllogism. They held that all reality is material, but that matter proper, which is passive, is to be distinguished from the animating or active principle, LOGOS (q.v.), which they conceived as both the divine reason and as simply a finer kind of material entity, an all-pervading breath or fire, such as the Greek philosopher Heraclitus had supposed the cosmic principle to be. According to them the human soul is a manifestation of the Logos. Living according to nature or reason, they held, is living in conformity with the divine order of the universe. This stoic view was fundamental to the theory of natural law that powerfully affected Roman jurisprudence.

The foundation of Stoic ethics is the principle, proclaimed earlier by the Cynics, that good lies not in external objects, but in the state of the soul itself, in the wisdom and restraint by which a person is delivered from the passions and desires that perturb the ordinary life. The four cardinal virtues of the Stoic philosophy are wisdom, courage, justice, and temperance, a classification derived from the teachings of Plato.

A distinctive feature of Stoicism is its cosmopolitanism. All people are manifestations of the one universal spirit and should live in brotherly love and readily help one another. They held that differences such as rank and wealth are of no importance in social relationships. Thus, before Christianity, Stoics recognized and advocated the brotherhood of humanity and the natural equality of all human beings.        R.A., RAZIEL ABELSON, M.A., Ph.D.

For further information on this topic, see the Bibliography, section 41. Greek philosophy.