officially Kingdom of Sweden (Swed. Konungariket Sverige), constitutional monarchy, N Europe, occupying the E portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula. It is bounded on the N and W by Norway, on the NE by Finland, on the E by the Gulf of Bothnia and the Baltic Sea, and on the SW by the straits of Øresund, the Kattegat, and the Skagerrak. Sweden includes the islands of Gotland and Öland in the Baltic Sea. It is the fourth largest country in Europe. The total area of Sweden is 449,964 sq km (173,732 sq mi).

LAND AND RESOURCES

The extreme distance from N to S in Sweden is about 1575 km (about 980 mi), and from E to W about 500 km (about 310 mi). The coastline totals about 7565 km (about 4700 mi) in length.

Sweden is part of the Fennoscandian Shield, which extends over part of N Europe. The rocks, except those in the NW, are primarily ancient Precambrian granites, schists, and gneisses. Younger metamorphic rocks are characteristic of the N part of the country. Sedimentary rocks are found in the S Skåne plains and in the islands of Gotland and Öland. The present topography of Sweden was formed largely by a continental ice sheet, which receded about 8000 years ago. The mountains, except for several of the highest peaks, were rounded by glaciation. The ice sheet scraped out deep valleys and created numerous glacial lakes. Ridges of rock, gravel, sand, and clay were deposited in many places by the retreating ice. Glacial seas left fertile marine clay soils in the S and in the central lake area. Some permanent ice fields still remain in the high mountain regions.

Physiographic Regions.

Sweden may be divided into six topographical regions. In the NW section are extensions of the Kjølen Mts., which form part of the boundary with Norway. The highest point in the range, and the highest point in Sweden, is atop Mt. Kebnekaise (2117 m/6946 ft). To the E of the mountains is a long plateau, which slopes E to a coastal plain bordering on the Gulf of Bothnia. The mountains of N Sweden are the source of many rivers, which flow SE to the Gulf of Bothnia. These rivers, which often have elongated lakes and a number of falls and rapids, constitute a valuable source of waterpower. The principal rivers are the Ångermanälven, Dalälven, Klarälv, Umeälv, and Torneälv.

In S central Sweden is a lowland with many lakes, including the largest lakes in the country, Lake Vänern and Lake Vättern. An upland region, known as the Småland highlands, is located S of the lowland. The plains of Skåne occupy the SE tip of the Scandinavian Peninsula.

Climate.

The climate is comparatively moderate, considering that Sweden is located at a very N latitude. The principal moderating influences are the Gulf Stream and the prevailing westerly winds, which blow in from the relatively warm North Atlantic Ocean. In winter these influences are offset by cold air masses that sweep in from the E. The climate of N Sweden is considerably more severe than that of the S primarily because it has higher altitudes and because the mountains cut off the moderating marine influence. The average temperature in February, the coldest month, is below 0° C (32° F) throughout Sweden, with temperatures ranging from –3.3° C (26° F) in Stockholm to –1.1° C (30° F) in Göteborg and –11.7° C (11° F) in Haparanda in the N part of the country. In July, the warmest month, the average temperatures are 16.7° C (62° F) in Göteborg and Stockholm and 15° C (59° F) in Haparanda. The proportion of daylight hours increases in the summer and decreases in the winter as the latitude becomes more northerly. In the area above the Arctic Circle (about one-seventh of Sweden), daylight is continuous for some two months in the summer and continual darkness occurs for some two months in the winter.

The average annual rainfall in Sweden is about 535 mm (about 21 in). Rainfall is heaviest in the SW and in the mountains along the Norwegian border. Most rain falls in the late summer. Heavy snows are common in central and N Sweden.

Natural Resources.

The major natural resources of Sweden are fertile farmland, forests that cover more than 60% of the country, large deposits of iron ore and other minerals, and abundant sources of waterpower for the production of electricity.

Soils.

About 6% of Sweden has arable soil. Fertile marine clay soils lie along the S coast, and underlying sedimentary limestones and shales, which help fertilize the soil, are found in the plains of Skåne. In the rest of the country, poorly developed podzolic soils, as well as large areas of exposed rock, predominate.

Plants and Animals.

Alpine and arctic vegetation prevail in N Sweden. The highest mountain areas are barren of vegetation; the next highest regions are moorlands with various kinds of mosses and lichens. Below the moorlands is a zone of birch and willow trees, often dwarfed and stunted. The next lower, and largest, zone is covered with coniferous forests, primarily of spruce and Scotch pine. In the S, deciduous trees, including oak and beech, are found.

Reindeer are common in N Sweden. The bear, lynx, marten, red deer, and wolf are the principal wild animals in the forested areas. The lemming, a small rodent, is abundant in the upland moorlands. Various wild fowl are plentiful.

POPULATION

The indigenous population of Sweden is composed mainly of Swedes, with small Finnish and Sami minorities. Between 1850 and 1930 about one million Swedes emigrated to Canada, the U.S., and Denmark, mainly for economic reasons. After that, many returned and there was in-migration from other European countries. More recently there has been substantial immigration from outside Europe, In 2004 an estimated 12% of the population was foreign-born, with about 7% of the population coming from outside Europe, including many from Iran, Iraq, and the Horn of Africa.

Population Characteristics.

The population of Sweden at the 1990 census was 8,585,907. The estimated population for 2006 was 9,016,596, giving the country an overall population density of about 21 persons per sq km (about 56 per sq mi). The great majority of the population lives in the S half of Sweden, especially in the central lowlands, the plains of Skåne, and the coastal lowlands. Large areas of the N mountains are sparsely inhabited. About 83.4% of the population is classified as urban.

Political Divisions.

Sweden is divided into 21 counties: Blekinge, Dalarna, Gävleborg, Gotland, Halland, Jämtland, Jönköping, Kalmar, Kronoberg, Norrbotten, Örebro, Östergötland, Skåne, Södermanland, Stockholm, Uppsala, Värmland, Västerbotten, Västernorrland, Västmanland, and Västra Götaland. Each county has a governor, appointed by the central government, and a council that is popularly elected.

Principal Cities.

The principal cities of Sweden include Stockholm, the capital and largest city, with a population (2005 est., metropolitan area) of 1,708,000 and Göteborg (urban aggr.) 827,000, an industrial center and seaport. Other major cities include Malmö, Uppsala, Linköping, Norrköping, Västerås, and Örebro.

Language.

Swedish is the country's official language. Sami and Finnish are locally official.

Religion.

About 87% of the Swedish people are nominally Lutherans, adherents of the Evangelical Lutheran Church which was the state church until 2000. Sweden is divided into 13 Lutheran dioceses; each headed by a bishop. Other Protestant denominations in Sweden are the Baptists, the Methodists, the Mission Covenant Church of Sweden, the Pentecostal Movement, and the Salvation Army. A small number of people are adherents of Roman Catholicism, Islam, or Judaism.

EDUCATION AND CULTURE

Organized higher education in Sweden dates from the late 15th century, when the first, and perhaps most influential, Swedish university was founded in 1477 in Uppsala.

Sweden has developed a modern industrial culture based on natural resources, technical skills, and a sense of quality. The people have tended to maintain provincial traditions and customs because of the isolated location of the country. Swedish society and life are characterized by simplicity and even severity resulting from geographic and economic conditions. Over the centuries, however, Swedish traders have returned with ideas and products that have been assimilated into Swedish culture. In the 18th century, French influence was especially important in modifying Swedish culture.

Education.

Swedish universities which received international recognition, in addition to the University of Uppsala (1477), were founded at Lund (1666), Stockholm (1877), and Göteborg (1891). Additional important institutions of higher learning, all located in Stockholm, include the Royal Institute of Technology (1827), the Stockholm School of Economics (1909), and the Karolinska Institute (1810), a medical college that annually awards the Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine.

Compulsory elementary schooling for seven years beginning at age 7 was formally introduced in Sweden in 1842.

Under legislation fully implemented in the schools in 1972–73, the period of compulsory education was extended to 9 years, in one single system, no longer divided into levels. A curriculum based on measurable goals was introduced in the late 1990s, with testing in the 5th and 9th years. Nearly all students continue in a three-year program of upper secondary education, which requires passing compulsory-school grades in Swedish, English, and mathematics. All of these programs, in addition to a preschool program, are free (tax-financed). University education to those who qualify is also largely free. Many types of vocational schools are also available, and adult education is extensive.

In 2002–3 about 2 million students attended comprehensive or secondary schools, and over 400,000 were enrolled in higher education.

Culture.

Sweden has made major contributions to art, design, literature, music, and motion pictures (see Art and Music below). Modern Swedish ceramics, furniture, glass, silver, stainless steel, and textiles have received international recognition for simple beauty, form, and functional design. Orrefors is a center noted for its artistry in making glassware.

Libraries and museums.

Sweden has many libraries, including public and county libraries and research libraries connected with universities, institutes, and state museums. Among the largest libraries are those of the universities of Uppsala, Göteborg, Lund, and Stockholm; the Royal Library (early 17th century) and the library of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences (1811), both in Stockholm; and the city libraries of Göteborg (1861) and Stockholm (1927).

Most large cities have museums of interest. Many of the best known museums are located in Stockholm; these include the National Museum (founded 1792), containing the principal art collection of Sweden; the Museum of National Antiquities (initially founded in 1630); the Vasa Museum (founded in 1990), housing a restored 16th century Swedish warship; and the open-air Skansen museum (1891), with displays of rural life.

Literature.

See Swedish Literature.

Art.

Swedish art originated in the Bronze Age (1500–500 bc). Ornaments dating from this period reveal an independent artistic style. Sculpture in stone was created on the island of Gotland about ad 500. The arts, especially sculpture, flourished in connection with the construction of churches about 1100–1350. Since the Middle Ages, Swedish art has often been profoundly influenced by European developments. Prominent Swedish artists of the 18th century include the painters Carl Gustav Pilo (1711–93) and Alexander Roslin (1718–93) and the sculptor Johan Tobias Sergel (1740–1814). The significant artists of the 19th century include Carl Fredrik Hill (1849–1911) and Ernst Josephson (1852–1906). Internationally recognized artists of the 20th century are the painter Anders Leonhard Zorn and the Swedish-American sculptor Carl Milles.

In architecture, although Sweden developed the medieval log cabin, which was introduced in the U.S. in the 17th century, major architectural advances were not made until the late 19th century. Since then, internationally noted architects from Sweden have included Ragnar Östberg (1866–1945), Erik Gunnar Asplund, and Sven Gottfrid Markelius (1889–1972).

In motion pictures Swedish directors have won international recognition. Ingmar Bergman is the most well-known. Others include Arne Edvard Sucksdorff (1917–2001), Arne Mattsson (1919– 95), and Bo Widerberg (1931–97), whose films about young outsiders include Raven's End (1963), Elvira Madigan (1967), and All Things Far (1995).

Music.

The greatest Swedish contribution to music has been in the field of song. Famous Swedish singers have included Jenny Lind, Christina Nilsson (1843–1921), Jussi Björling (1911–60), and Birgit Nilsson. Swedish folk music reflects the natural surroundings and the remoteness of the country through the ages. In the 18th century, a period of great cultural activity, King Gustav III founded the Academy of Music, the Stockholm Opera, and the Royal Ballet. A Swedish composer who achieved international fame was the symphonist Franz Berwald. Modern composers include Hugo Alfven (1872–1960), whose music is based on Swedish folk songs, Hilding Rosenberg (1892–1985), and Karl-Birger Blomdahl (1916–68).

ECONOMY

Sweden became a member of the European Union (EU) in 1995, but, like Great Britain and Denmark, has declined to adopt the euro as its currency. The country has extensive forests, rich iron-ore deposits, and abundant waterpower resources, and developed a high-tech urban industrialized economy. Telecommunication equipment, electronics, pharmaceuticals, and automotive industries are of great importance. Although about 90% of Swedish industry is privately owned, the government exercises substantial control over the economy to moderate economic fluctuations, and has an extensive apparatus of services and support for its citizens. The estimated national budget in 2006 included revenue of about $222 billion and expenditure of about $211 billion. With an estimated gross domestic product (GDP) of $285.1 billion in 2006 or $31,600 per capita, Sweden enjoys one of the world's highest standards of living. The inflation rate was also down to 1.4%.

Labor.

Sweden's recognized highly skilled labor force is due to the country's excellent education system. In 2006 the labor force totaled about 4.6 million persons. Of this total, about 24% were engaged in industry and 74% in services. Only about 2% worked in farming, forestry, and fishing combined. The Swedish labor market is highly organized, with unions founded from the 1870s. The Swedish Trade Union Confederation had nearly 2.3 million members in the 1990s. Working conditions and labor-management relations are generally excellent and strikes are rare; the country experienced considerable labor unrest at the start of the 1980s, however.

Agriculture.

Sweden is nearly self-sufficient in agricultural products although only about 7% of the land is cultivated. Scientific farming, including intensive fertilization and mechanization, makes possible good crop yields despite poor soil, rugged topography, and a short growing season. Agriculture is intensively developed in the S lowlands, especially in the fertile plains of Skåne.

Swedish farms vary in size from large estates to small farms. In recent years, many small farms have been combined into larger units. Most agricultural production is for domestic consumption. About 2% of the labor force is engaged in agriculture, forestry, and fishing. After World War II dairying, traditionally important in Swedish agriculture, declined somewhat in relation to the production of grains and vegetables. The leading farm commodities remain livestock and livestock products, especially dairy items. The major crops are barley, oats, potatoes, rye, sugar beets, and wheat. The livestock population includes approximately 1.6 million cattle, 1.8 million hogs, 480,000 sheep, and 6.6 million poultry.

Forestry and Fishing.

Sweden is one of the largest producers of timber products in the world. Forest products for making lumber and for use in making paper account for substantial portions of Sweden's yearly industrial output and exports. The most productive lumbering areas are in the lower slopes of the N highlands and in the Småland region. Timber-processing plants are concentrated along the coast of the Gulf of Bothnia; some of the many rivers that flow into the gulf are used to transport the logs to the mills and to supply the mills with power.

Fish catch of Sweden totaled about 275,911 metric tons in 2004. Herring made up about one-fifth of the catch; other fish landed include cod, flounder, and salmon. Göteborg is an important fishing port.

Mining.

Mineral production is very important in Swedish industry and for foreign trade. Extensive high-grade iron-ore deposits are located in central and N Sweden, notably around Kiruna and Malmberget. Other important minerals include lead, copper, zinc, and uranium. Silver and pyrites also are produced.

Manufacturing.

Manufacturing has become increasingly important in Sweden since the 1880s. By the mid-1990s Sweden was one of the most industrialized countries of Europe. Swedish industry enjoys the advantages of high-quality domestic raw materials and skilled labor.

In 2000 about 24% of labor force was engaged in manufacturing. Most of the manufacturing plants were privately owned., and the majority of these were small. Sweden is noted for producing high-quality steel; additional major manufactures include aluminum, lead, copper, motor vehicles, machinery, electric and electronic equipment, lumber, paper, furniture, glass and glassware, chemicals, refined petroleum, textiles and clothing, aircraft, ships, and processed food. Leading manufacturing centers include Stockholm, Göteborg, Linköping, and Trollhättan.

Energy.

Although Sweden is rich in waterpower resources, approximately 52% of its electricity is generated in nuclear power plants. Total electricity output in 2004 was some 150 billion kwh.

Currency and Banking.

The national currency is the krona, or crown, which is divided into 100 öre (7.24 kronor equal U.S.$1; Sept. 2006). The central bank of Sweden, the Sveriges Riksbank (1668), issues currency and determines monetary policy; it is responsible to the national legislature, which appoints the bank's governing board. Sweden also has several commercial banks with many branches, in addition to savings banks and other financial organizations. The main stock exchange is in Stockholm.

Foreign Trade.

Foreign trade is very important to Sweden's economy. Long a member of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA), Sweden withdrew from the association when it joined the EU in 1995. The country's major trading partners include other EU members, Norway, the U.S., and Japan. In 2006, exports earned about $174 billion and imports cost $152 billion. Principal exports include machinery (35%), motor vehicles, paper products, pulp and wood, iron and steel, and chemicals. Major imports are machinery, petroleum, transport equipment, chemicals, clothing and textiles, foodstuffs, and iron and steel.

Transportation.

Sweden's transportation facilities are concentrated in the S third of the country. Sweden had about 130,000 km (90,000 mi) of paved roads and about 295,000 km (183,000 mi) of unpaved roads in 2004. In that same year about 4.1 million passenger cars and 435,000 trucks and buses were in use. Railroad trackage totals about 11,500 km (about 7100 mi), virtually all of which is state owned; approximately two-thirds of the route length, including the principal rail lines, is electrified. Inland waterways include the Göta Canal, which connects the E and W coasts of Sweden. Although the canal is important chiefly as a tourist route, it serves some local commerce. The Swedish merchant marine has a total displacement of about 3.3 million deadweight tons. Stockholm and Göteborg are the leading seaports.

The Scandinavian Airlines System (SAS) provides international service, and several firms offer domestic flights. The principal international airports are at Arlanda (near Stockholm), Landvetter (near Göteborg), and Sturup (near Malmö).

Communications.

Sweden publishes a large number of newspapers and magazines, of which about 170 daily newspapers, with a circulation of about 4.1 million; many have online versions. Some of the influential dailies were Expressen, Aftonbladet, and Dagens Nyheter, all published in Stockholm, and Göteborgs-Posten. The free daily newspaper Metro, launched in Sweden in 1995, is available now internationally in near 70 cities in Europe, the Americas, and Asia. A wide variety of broadcast and satellite communications services are available to Swedish households. In the early 2000s Sweden had more than 8 million radios and some 9 million televisions in use. There were more than 6 million main-line telephones and 8 million cell phones in use, and some 7 million Internet users.

GOVERNMENT

Sweden is a constitutional monarchy. It is governed under the constitution of 1975, which superseded the Constitutional Act of 1809 and the Parliament Act of 1866, as amended. The 1975 constitution eliminated the last vestiges of monarchical power in governing the country. The monarch remained head of state, an exclusively ceremonial post, but no longer was supreme commander of the armed forces and ceased to preside over cabinet meetings. All power was defined as emanating from the people. The constitution includes a lengthy bill of rights. In 1980 succession to the throne was granted to the first-born child irrespective of sex; the heir apparent, Princess Victoria Ingrid Alice Desirée, daughter of the monarch, was born on July 14, 1977.

Executive.

In Sweden executive power is vested in the cabinet, which is responsible to the national legislature, the Riksdag. The cabinet is composed of a prime minister and department ministers and ministers without portfolio. In addition to the cabinet ministries, numerous central agencies administer government-operated services. These agencies, which are headed by government-appointed directors, are nominally subordinate to the cabinet ministries but actually function independently of them.

Legislature.

In 1971 the Riksdag, formerly a bicameral diet, was changed to a unicameral legislature with 350 popularly elected members; the 1975 constitution reduced the number of members to 349, effective at the next election, to prevent tie votes. Members of the Riksdag are elected to serve 4-year terms under a system of proportional representation.

Judiciary.

The Swedish judiciary is entirely independent of the other branches of government and comprises a three-tier system of courts: the supreme court, six courts of appeal, and district and city courts. The supreme court is the court of final appeal in all cases and may also consider new evidence. The appeals courts, in addition to having appellate jurisdiction, are responsible for the administration of the court system in their areas and for the further training of judges. District and city courts are courts of first instance. They are presided over by judges who are assisted by a popularly elected panel, usually consisting of from three to five laypersons. Juries are used only in press libel suits.

A special feature of the Swedish judicial system, instituted in 1809 and copied in recent years by other countries, is the official known as the ombudsman. This official's duty is to see that public authorities comply with the law and fulfill their obligations to citizens. Ombudsmen may investigate complaints by any citizen and bring evidence of error or wrongdoing before a court. They are elected by the Riksdag for 4-year terms and can be re-elected; today Sweden has four such officials, one of them bearing the title of chief parliamentary ombudsman and each having his or her own area of supervision.

Local Government.

Each of the 21 counties (län) in Sweden is governed by an administrative board appointed by the central government and chaired by an appointed governor; each county also has a popularly elected council. The counties are divided into 288 municipal districts, which also have popularly elected councils.

Political Parties.

In the early 2000s the leading Swedish political group was the Social Democratic party, which held the largest number of seats in the Riksdag after the parliamentary elections of 2002. A 4-party coalition headed by the Moderate party won the elections of 2006. Other influential groups included the Left, Christian Democratic, Center, Liberal People's, and Green parties.

Health and Welfare.

Swedish social-welfare legislation is extensive; it ensures that all citizens receive old-age pensions, health insurance, and workers' compensation disability benefits. An unemployment-insurance plan is subsidized largely by the government but administered by the trade unions. Other social-welfare provisions include subsidies to families who are raising children; financial aid to newly married couples; maternity benefits; free vacations for mothers and children of low-income families; and government-subsidized low-rental housing.

Health facilities and conditions in Sweden rank among the best in the world. In 2006, life expectancy from birth averaged 82.9 years for women and 78.3 for men; the infant mortality rate was a very low 2.8 per 1000 live births.

Defense.

The armed forces of Sweden are headed by a supreme commander and a defense staff that coordinates the activities of the army, the navy, and the air force. Under legislation approved in 1999 and 2000 the defense system was being transformed from a force against invasion to a more flexible mobile system suitable for defense at home and deployment in international operations. Up to 17 months of military service is compulsory for men who have reached the age of 19. An important component of the country's defenses is the civil defense service; all persons between the ages of 16 and 25 can be called to serve. In 2005 active troops totaled 27,600 and the defense budget was $5.6 billion.

International Organizations.

In addition to its membership in the EU, Sweden is a member of the United Nations (UN), the Nordic Council, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, the World Trade Organization, and the Council of Europe. Sweden is not a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, but participates in its activities to a limited extent as part of the NATO Partnership for Peace program.

HISTORY

During Roman times the eastern half of the Scandinavian Peninsula was dominated by two Germanic tribes: the Suiones, or Svear, in Svealand; and the Gothones, or Gotar, in Gotaland. Before the 10th century, details of Swedish history are obscure. In the first half of the 9th century the Frankish missionary Anskar (801?–65) visited the trading center at Birka, but Christianity only gained ground slowly. Olaf Skötkonung (r. 994–1022) was the first Swedish king to accept Christianity. King Eric (r. 1150–60) invaded Finland and forced Christianity on those he conquered; during the subsequent two centuries Finland was completely subjugated by the Swedes. Eric was allegedly slain by a Danish claimant of his throne while he was attending mass, and he later became the patron saint of Sweden.

The Union of Kalmar.

In the 13th and 14th centuries nobles and church officials had control in Sweden. In 1389 the Swedish aristocrats forced Albert of Mecklenburg (c. 1340–1412) to renounce the throne, which was given to Margaret I, queen of Denmark and Norway, in the hope that she would be more malleable. In 1397 Margaret effected the Union of Kalmar, by which the three Scandinavian kingdoms of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden were united under a single sovereign.

The union, which endured for more than a century, was characterized by constant dissension and wars between the Swedes and the union monarchs, who resided in Denmark. King Christian II of Denmark and Norway invaded Sweden in 1520 to enforce his claims to the Swedish throne. After being crowned, he had scores of his opponents executed. These murders provoked a rebellion in 1521, led by Gustav Vasa, who became regent after the successful rebellion and, in 1523, king as Gustav I. Denmark, however, retained its historic possession of the southern part of the peninsula. Under Gustav, Sweden became a hereditary monarchy in which the power of the nobles was circumscribed and that of the clergy subordinated to the state. Lutheranism was established as the state religion in the 1520s and '30s.

Sweden as Military Power.

During the 16th century Sweden entered a period of expansion. The Revel (now Tallinn) and its Estonian hinterland requested and received Swedish protection in 1561, and as a result of the Livonia War of 1557 to 1582, Sweden acquired all of Estonia from Poland, including the district of Narva. Gradually the kingdom became a power in the Baltic area, and its expansionist policies were furthered by Gustav II Adolph, who succeeded to the throne in 1611. At the beginning of his reign, Sweden was at war with Denmark, Poland, and Russia. The conflict with Russia ended in 1617 with a treaty by which Sweden obtained eastern Karelia and Ingria. The Polish conflict gave Sweden all of Livonia, although this was not formally acknowledged by Poland until 1660. In 1630 Gustav entered the Thirty Years' War and was looked upon as the champion of Protestantism. The king died in 1632, but his policies were brilliantly continued by his chancellor, Count Axel Oxenstierna, who directed the Swedish government during the minority of the monarch's daughter, Christina. Queen Christina came of age in 1644 and was crowned in 1650. By the Peace of Westphalia (1648), ending the Thirty Years' War, Sweden acquired a large part of Pomerania, the island of Rügen, Wismar, and the sees of Bremen and Verden, which entitled the Swedish sovereign to three votes in the diet of the Holy Roman Empire. Sweden then became the greatest power in the Baltic area. In 1654 Queen Christina, a Catholic, abdicated, naming her cousin Charles X Gustav as her successor; she lived the rest of her life in Rome. Pursuing his predecessor's policy of military aggression, Charles, who ruled until 1660, declared war on Poland (the First Northern War, 1655–60), and overran that country, forcing Poland's formal concession of Livonia to Sweden. Charles invaded Denmark twice in 1658, wresting from it the Danish provinces in the southern Scandinavian peninsula as well as the island of Gotland and part of Norway.

The regents for Charles's son and successor, Charles XI, allied Sweden with France (ruled by Louis XIV) in the early 1670s, since Sweden, a small and not overly wealthy country, no longer had the resources to defend its Baltic conquests without subsidies. In 1675 the Swedes, as French allies, lost a battle at Fehrbellin to forces of Frederick William, elector of Brandenburg, putting an end to myths of Swedish invincibility. In response, Charles struck at the former regents and the aristocracy, dismantling the council of state and weakening the Riksdag (national legislature), and making himself an absolute monarch. In 1680 he confiscated all large estates made up of land transferred to the aristocracy earlier in the century, thus providing the means by which to support the military.

The Great Northern War.

Charles XII, son and successor to Charles XI, was a military genius. Not long after his accession, at the age of 15, he successfully engaged an aggressive coalition of Russia, Poland, and Denmark in the beginning of the Great Northern War (1700–21). During the first years of this conflict Sweden brilliantly asserted its position as the great military power of the Baltic. Charles defeated the Poles by 1706, but meanwhile Peter the Great of Russia was establishing his dominion on the Baltic coasts. In 1709 the Swedes were completely routed by Russia at the Battle of Poltava, marking the collapse of Sweden and its replacement by Russia as the dominant power in the Baltic. By the treaties of Stockholm and Nystadt in 1721, Sweden lost much of its German territory and ceded Livonia, Estonia, Ingria, part of Karelia, and several important Baltic islands to Russia.

Charles XII had died in 1718 and was succeeded by his sister Ulrika Eleonora (1688–1741), conditional on her acceptance of a new constitution destroying the absolute monarchy and vesting power in the Riksdag of four estates (nobles, clergy, burghers, and peasants). The council of state was revived, but true power lay with the Riksdagand especially with the so-called secret committee recruited from the first three estates. Political parties soon emerged in the Riksdag, and parliamentary politics filled the vacuum left by the constraints on the monarch.

In 1771 Gustav III came to the throne and, availing himself of the general dissatisfaction with parliamentary gridlock, managed to invalidate the constitution in 1772. He promulgated a new constitution and strengthened the prerogatives of the monarch. His policies furthered the economic interests of the burghers and peasants, but his ill-conceived war against Russia (1788–90) threatened his position at home and led to his restoration of absolute monarchy in 1789. Now viewed by many as a despot, he was assassinated in 1792.

Napoleonic Wars.

His son and successor, Gustav IV Adolph, was bitterly opposed to Napoleon of France, and in 1805 he joined the Third Coalition against him, composed of Great Britain, Sweden, Russia, and Austria. Russia deserted the coalition for an alliance with Napoleon in 1807 and a year later invaded and occupied Finland, thus splitting the Swedish realm. Gustav was deposed by a revolt of senior military officers and civilians in 1809. The Riksdag then formulated a new constitution (which remained in force until 1975) and elected as monarch the ex-king's uncle, Charles XIII. Sweden concluded two treaties, one with Russia in 1809, ceding all of Finland and the Åland Islands, and another with France in 1810, by which a pro-Napoleonic policy was adopted. Charles XIII was childless, and the Riksdag chose the French Marshal Jean Baptiste Jules Bernadotte, prince of Pontecorvo and one of Napoleon's generals, as crown prince, in an effort to conciliate Napoleon. The marshal accepted, and an act of settlement, fixing the succession in the Bernadotte dynasty, was enacted in 1810. Bernadotte almost immediately became the dominant influence in Swedish policy. Withdrawing his allegiance from France, he fought with the coalition against Napoleon in 1813–14. In the latter year Denmark was forced to yield Norway to the king of Sweden, receiving in exchange the Swedish possessions in Pomerania. At the end of the Napoleonic Wars, Sweden no longer possessed territory in Germany. The Congress of Vienna, in 1815, recognized the union of Norway with Sweden. See also Napoleonic Wars.

A Century of Change.

In 1818 Bernadotte succeeded to the throne as Charles XIV John. Although his reign (1818–44) was characterized by a conflict for control between the throne and the Riksdag, his immediate successors, Oscar I, Charles XV, and Oscar II, found it easier to work with parliament. Between 1864 and 1866 the constitution was substantially revised, and the four-estate Riksdag in 1867 became a bicameral body. Population growth brought emigration, industrialization, and urbanization in subsequent decades. During the reign of Oscar II notable progress was made in social legislation, including factory laws, accident insurance for workers, and limitation of working hours for women and children.

The union with Norway showed serious strains in the late 19th century, and in June 1905 the Norwegian Storting (legislature) proclaimed its dissolution, an act not strongly opposed by the Swedish Riksdag. In 1907 Gustav V succeeded to the throne, and two years later constitutional amendments extended the voting franchise and inaugurated proportional representation as well as other reforms.

Sweden During the World Wars.

In 1914, at the beginning of World War I, Sweden declared its neutrality and subsequently entered an agreement with Norway and Denmark to defend the neutrality and protect the common economic interests of the Scandinavian countries. Sweden joined the League of Nations in 1920. Led by the Swedish statesman Karl Hjalmar Branting, the Social Democratic party became an important political force and shared time in office along with other minority governments in the 1920s. The coming of the worldwide economic and industrial depression produced majority governments under Social Democratic leadership beginning in 1932.

In the late 1930s, when war seemed imminent in Europe, military preparedness and national defense became a paramount concern. The Swedish government proclaimed its neutrality at the outbreak of World War II. Despite some concessions to German demands in the early years of the war, and to the Allies later on, Sweden maintained its neutral status and territorial integrity throughout the war.

The Postwar Period.

In July 1945, after the end of hostilities in Europe, the wartime coalition cabinet resigned and the Social Democrats, under Prime Minister Per Albin Hansson (1885–1946), resumed full control of the government. On his death in October 1946, Hansson was succeeded by the minister of education and church affairs, Tage Erlander. In November Sweden became the 54th member of the UN.

The nation maintained its formal neutrality in the ensuing cold war. In 1948 it joined the U.S.-sponsored European Recovery Program, along with the other Western European nations, but refused to become a member of NATO, formed in 1949. Failing in efforts to form a Scandinavian defense bloc, Sweden began systematically to strengthen its defenses. Despite the fact that proposals in the 1950s to arm Swedish forces with nuclear weapons won adherence in leading government circles, opposition in the Riksdag and within the Social Democratic party led to their rejection in the next decade.

King Gustav V was succeeded upon his death in 1950 by his oldest son, Gustav VI Adolph. The Social Democratic-Agrarian coalition government formed in 1951 held until 1957, when disagreement over conflicting proposals for financing an expanded old-age pension plan led to a bitter referendum campaign and Social Democratic insistence on pursuing its version of the plan. Thereafter the Social Democrats formed their own successive governments under Erlander and, after he retired in 1969, under Olof Palme (1927–86).

In the three decades following World War II Sweden became an outstanding example of an apparently successful welfare state, with strong economic growth and an array of social programs to benefit citizens. Sweden was a founding member of EFTA in 1959. The nation pursued a vigorous program of international development aid. Prime Minister Palme expressed opposition to Soviet policy in eastern Europe and, later, in Afghanistan and also to U.S. policy in Vietnam.

A constitutional revision effective in 1971 reorganized the legislature into a unicameral body and implemented a new electoral system. In 1973 Gustav VI Adolph died and was succeeded by his grandson, Carl XVI Gustaf. On Jan. 1, 1975, a new constitution, dissolving the remaining power of the king, came into force.

Changing Tides.

The staggering rise in oil prices in 1973–74 marked the beginning of the end of an era in modern Swedish history. Following in its wake, structural changes in the world economy ended Swedish prominence in shipbuilding and steel production, challenging long-held economic assumptions. Sweden weathered the world economic slump of 1974–75 well, but it was troubled by a high inflation rate, growing foreign debts, and large budget deficits. One casualty was the Social Democratic government; another was Sweden's traditional stability in labor-management relations.

In the September 1976 elections the Social Democrats, after 44 years in office, lost to a coalition of the Center, Conservative, and Liberal parties with Thorbjörn Fälldin (1926–    ) as prime minister. Fälldin's government resigned over the issue of nuclear power generation in 1978, but Fälldin returned to the helm the following year after an interim minority Liberal government. The fight against inflation was hampered in 1980 by a rare general strike that brought the country to a virtual standstill in May. A year later, thousands of white-collar workers went on strike as the government coalition split. A general strike was averted, however, and Fälldin then formed a Center-Liberal minority government. The Social Democrats returned to power in the 1982 elections, with Palme once again becoming prime minister. When he was assassinated on Feb. 28, 1986, Ingvar Carlsson (1934–    ) became prime minister, a position he retained following the 1988 elections.

By the late 1980s the gradual expansion of the European Community, or EC, and the target date of 1992 for the creation of a single market placed great strains on EFTA members. The collapse of Soviet power and the end of the cold war in the years after 1989 also removed the preservation of neutrality as an overriding concern of Swedish governments. By fall 1990 the Social Democrats had announced a drastic reduction in personal income taxes for 1991 and their intention to make formal application for Swedish membership in the EC (submitted in June 1991). Despite these moves, the Social Democrats experienced their worst results since 1928 in the September 1991 elections, which transferred control of the government to a coalition of four nonsocialist parties under Moderate party leader Carl Bildt (1949–    ).

The general election of September 1994 brought Carlsson back to power, heading a minority government. Following approval by Swedish voters in a November referendum, Sweden withdrew from EFTA and entered the EU, the successor of the EC, on Jan. 1, 1995. Carlsson retired the following March, to be succeeded by Göran Persson (1949–    ). Despite a weak showing (36% of the vote) by the Social Democrats in the elections of September 1998, Persson remained in office as the head of a minority coalition. Four years later Persson and his Social Democrats made a stronger showing, winning another four years in power with 40% of the vote and a gain of 13 seats in the Riksdag, for a total of 144.

Anna Lindh (b.1957), foreign minister since 1998, was stabbed by an unknown male attacker on Sept. 10, 2003, and died the next day. Lindh had often been mentioned as a possible successor to Persson, and was a vocal supporter of Swedish adoption of the euro currency. In a referendum held four days later, Sweden voted against adoption of the euro by a vote of 56% to 42%.

New Government.

On Oct. 5, 2006, Fredrik Reinfeldt (1965–    ) took office as Swedish premier, after leading the Alliance for Sweden, a center-right coalition of four parties, to a narrow victory in parliamentary elections. The Alliance, headed by Reinfeldt's Moderate party, unseated the Social Democrats, who had governed Sweden in the last 12 years and held power in all but nine years since 1932, by only a 7-seat majority in the 349-seat parliament. After the 2006 elections women made up 47 percent of the parliament's elected membership, and the new 22-member cabinet included 9 women.

For further information on this topic, see the Bibliography, sections 843. Scandinavian literature, 985. Scandinavia, 988. Sweden.