New Orleans

History

Foundation and Early Settlement
The decision to found New Orleans, or Nouvelle-Orléans, was made in Paris in 1717 by John Law's Company of the West, which had taken control of Louisiana that year. The colony's new proprietors envisioned New Orleans (named for the French regent, Philippe II, duc d'Orléans) as a “port of deposit,” or transshipment centre, for future trade from upriver in the Mississippi River valley. Jean-Baptiste le Moyne de Bienville, the man who suggested the site, was entrusted with the actual foundation of the city. Clearing of underbrush for the new city probably began in March 1718. The engineers charged with this task met with problems arising from uncooperative convict labour, a shortage of supplies, two severe hurricanes (in 1721 and 1722), and the unpleasant physical conditions of mosquito-infested swamps as they set up the first crude dwellings covered with bark and reeds. An engineer, Adrien de Pauger, drafted the first plan for the town, encompassing what is now the Vieux Carré and consisting of 66 squares forming a parallelogram.

The first residents were a colourful mixture of Canadian backwoodsmen, company craftsmen and troops, convicts, slaves, prostitutes, and indigents. In a census taken in November 1721, New Orleans had a population of 470 people: 277 whites and 172 black and 21 Indian slaves. In 1722 New Orleans was designated the capital of Louisiana, and in 1731 the city returned to the control of the French crown. More respectable colonists began to arrive, but growth continued to be precarious. The main economic staples grown in the vicinity of New Orleans were tobacco and indigo for export and rice and vegetables for local consumption. Naval stores were also exported. French ships, however, were reluctant to call at New Orleans to pick up such cargo because its value did not match its bulk.

In 1762 France, ready to part with its unprofitable port, secretly agreed to cede Louisiana to Spain, and, by the Treaty of Paris (1763), Spain received New Orleans and the Louisiana Territory west of the Mississippi. After a brief rebellion—which was sternly suppressed—the inhabitants of New Orleans enjoyed peace and a growing prosperity under Spanish law, while trade arose with the British colonies in spite of Spanish restrictions. At the same time, English-speaking colonists were moving west to settle along the tributaries of the Mississippi. In the decade of the American Revolution, these “Kaintucks,” as they were called, began floating their cargoes downriver to New Orleans; several times Spanish officials suspended the right of deposit of American goods at New Orleans in response to the boisterous conduct of American frontiersmen along the city's upper levee.

In 1800 Louisiana was secretly returned to Napoleon's France, and by 1803 the French emperor had negotiated its sale to the United States. The ceremonies transferring Louisiana to France and later to the United States took place in New Orleans's Cabildo and main square, the Place d'Armes (now Jackson Square), in the winter of 1803.

The Growth of the City

The early 19th century
New Orleans's population in 1803 was approximately 8,000, consisting of 4,000 whites and 2,700 enslaved and about 1,300 free persons of colour. Its prosperity was reflected in its 1803 exports, which had a value approaching $2 million and were bound mainly for American ports. In 1805, when it was incorporated as a municipality, New Orleans took on an identity separate from that of Louisiana's territorial government. As the city expanded out of its original limits, one of the first new tracts of land to be added was the Faubourg Sainte Marie, a suburb lying on the uptown side of the Vieux Carré and separated from it by a broad “commons” (now Canal Street, New Orleans's main street). The Faubourg Sainte Marie became the “American section” in the early 19th century and the hub of most business activities. Other faubourgs (outskirts, or suburbs) were laid out above and below the two nuclear settlements and across the river and were finally absorbed into the city by the 1870s.

During the War of 1812, New Orleans was threatened by a British invasion force, which approached the city from the Gulf of Mexico. General Andrew Jackson, with an army of frontiersmen and local volunteers, won a smashing victory on January 8, 1815, saving the city, though, unknown to him, the war already had been concluded.

The next 40 years constituted the golden age of New Orleans as a great cotton port. The first steamboat to reach the city, in 1812, was appropriately called the New Orleans. Mississippi River steamboats increased to 400 by 1840, and local commerce skyrocketed in value, reaching $54 million by 1835. By 1840 the city was rated the fourth port in the world; after the 1840s canals and railroads diverted produce eastward to New York City.

German and Irish immigrants arrived in New Orleans in large numbers in the 1840s. By 1850 the city's total population had swelled to 116,375. New Orleans, however, had not learned to cope with the health hazards of its mushrooming growth: drinking water came from the river or cisterns; no sewerage system existed; drainage was deficient; and flooding was common after heavy rains. The results were sporadic outbreaks of cholera and yellow fever, the worst of which was the yellow fever epidemic of 1853, accounting for more than 8,000 deaths.

The Civil War and its Aftermath

During the American Civil War the strategic location of the city was inadequately appreciated by the Confederate military. The Union fleet of Admiral David Farragut was able to capture New Orleans in April 1862. The city was placed under the military command of General Benjamin Butler, and city officials were removed from office. Although Butler was replaced as commander by Nathaniel Banks by the end of 1862, his brief regime became infamous in local history for his roughshod handling of the population.

During the period of Reconstruction, 1865–77, racial tensions ran high. “Scalawags” (white Southerners who cooperated with Republican forces) and “carpetbaggers” (Northerners accused of exploiting the situation for personal gain) cooperated to gain political control of the city and state, with the support of black voters. By 1872 amnesty had been granted to the ex-Confederates, and the municipal government returned to traditional white control, although the state government and the city police force remained under Radical Republican control until 1877.

In the 1880s the debt of $24 million, incurred under carpetbag regimes, increased steadily with each subsequent administration. This municipal debt had to be paid before the city could undertake any new bond issues for sorely needed municipal improvements. In the last 20 years of the 19th century, therefore, New Orleans made limited, though steady, progress. Between 1840 and 1900 it had dropped from 3rd to 12th place in national rank, although its population had increased to 287,104.


Yellow fever was sharply curtailed after the Civil War and was finally eradicated by 1906. By the early 20th century the river steamboats, unable to compete with railroads, disappeared; the Port of New Orleans, attracting less railroad freight than Eastern ports, reached a low ebb shortly before World War I. With the development of towboats and barges large enough to hold almost an entire trainload of cargo, however, the port grew to be second in the nation after World War II. Substantial progress, at least in physical improvements, came to the city in the 1950s. During the administration of Mayor DeLesseps S. Morrison, a vast railroad consolidation program was achieved and a new railroad terminal constructed. Streets were widened, railroad ground crossings were spanned with overpasses, and a civic centre, which includes the 11-story City Hall, was built.

Also in the 1950s, petrochemical industries began locating in New Orleans, followed in the 1970s by oil refineries. The 1984 Louisiana World Exposition revitalized the warehouse district but was a financial disaster. In the mid-1980s the local oil industry went bust, and the city's fortunes began to decline. Movement of middle-class citizens to the suburbs, which had begun in the '60s, continued in earnest. High rates of crime in general and murder in particular and police corruption characterized the city into the mid-1990s; subsequently, however, the situation improved considerably, buoyed by a strong tourism-based economy.

The 2005 hurricanes caused an unprecedented disaster for the city and surrounding communities. Although some wards, notably the Vieux Carré, escaped the most serious damage, large areas were completely destroyed, and a great many buildings left standing after the storm's initial onslaught were rendered unusable by the severity of the subsequent widespread flooding. The extent of the devastation forced the bulk of the population to find temporary housing elsewhere for varying lengths of time, and some chose not to return. As cleanup operations got underway, many questions arose about how New Orleans would be rebuilt.


Joy Juanita Jackson

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