The Military Roots of Ski Mountaineering and Biathlon

In 1872, the Italian Army turned to farmers and mountaineers from villages to guard the nation’s northern borders. They envisioned a specialized military unit capable of operating where traditional armies couldn’t: in the harsh terrain and brutal conditions of the European Alps. Known as the Alpini, the recruits navigated and patrolled the treacherous peaks. Today, they are the world’s oldest active mountain infantry corps.

Equipped with skis and weapons, the Alpini fought their first major battles during World War I’s so-called “White War.” By then, several European countries also had comparable military units. As skiing’s military importance grew, it evolved into a recreational sport, eventually giving rise to the Olympic disciplines of military ski patrol (introduced in 1924), biathlon (1960) and ski mountaineering (2026).

“There is, from the 17th and 18th centuries on, a real connection between the military and the civilian growth of skiing,” says E. John B. Allen, historian for the New England Ski Museum. “One helps the other, as it were.”

The practice of skiing as a means of survival dates back millennia, but the earliest known use of skis in warfare was during the Norwegian Civil War, around 1200. Norwegian culture embraced skiing as both a recreational activity and a practical way to get places. Skis were also used for military purposes in Sweden, Finland, Poland and Russia from the 15th to 17th centuries.

Many European countries deployed ski troops in greater numbers by the 1600s and 1700s, explains Allen, author of The Culture and Sport of Skiing: From Antiquity to World War II. Early military biathlon competitions were held near the Norwegian-Swedish border in 1767. Participants shot at a mark while skiing, raced downhill or skied on flat ground while carrying a rifle or military equipment.

With the rise of nationalism in 19th-century Europe, countries became increasingly invested in mountain infantry units. France created its own Chasseurs Alpins (Alpine Hunters) unit in the late 1870s, writes Allen. Russian, German, Austrian, Italian and Swiss regiments also equipped troops with skis by the 1890s. “You get a feeling that Europe, at that stage, was in frantic competition with itself,” Allen says.

At the same time, the Alps were becoming a tourist destination, catering to affluent travelers who rode railways that cut through the peaks. Norwegian ski innovations, such as specialized toe straps, further fueled the rise of recreational skiing across 19th-century Europe.

Norwegian immigrants founded or otherwise influenced ski clubs in Europe, Australia and the United States. The sport arrived to America by midcentury with immigrants drawn west by the California Gold Rush. In 1857, a group of young, affluent British men formed the Alpine Club, the world’s first mountaineering club (and a gentlemen’s club). Advances in climbing technology similarly made ski mountaineering more feasible for scientists and explorers.

During World War I, ski troops were deployed primarily to the Alps and, to some extent, the Carpathian Mountains of Eastern Europe. Alpine forces blasted mountains to dislodge enemies, dug tunnels and hauled supplies up the rocky terrain.

“This war set the course for winter tourism,” writes Italian scientist and conservationist Michael Wachtler in The First World War in the Alps. “Aerial cableways and lifts transported men and equipment into the high regions, and skis became important means of locomotion in battle.” 

Recreational skiing further extended to the middle class. During the interwar years, ski advertising, press coverage and winter fashion helped drive recreational skiing’s growth. Alpine (downhill) skiing for leisure and sport was more popular than ever in Europe and the United States by the 1930s, partly due to the inventions of rope tows and chairlifts.

The inaugural 1924 Winter Olympics in Paris introduced military ski patrol as an official medal event combining cross-country skiing, mountaineering and rifle shooting. It returned as a demonstration sport in 1928, 1936 and 1948.

During World War II, the Finnish Army deployed ski troops against the Soviet Union’s much larger Red Army in the “Winter War” of 1939-40. With knowledge of their homeland’s forested, snowy terrain, the Finns put up a spirited defense against Soviet forces. Although the Red Army eventually broke through Finnish defenses and forced territorial concessions, Western Allies applauded Finland’s tactical successes. The United States dispatched a similar mountain warfare unit to the Italian Alps at the end of 1944. 

“That tradition came to the United States, actually via people who were at least mentored by Alpine troops from the First World War,” says Maurice Isserman, author of The Winter Army: The World War II Odyssey of the 10th Mountain Division, America’s Elite Alpine Warriors and professor of history at Hamilton College.

The U.S. 10th Mountain Division later broke the German defensive line in Italy and played a pivotal role in Germany’s May 1945 surrender on the Italian front. After the war, alpine military techniques were formalized as global sports and recreational skiing’s popularity exploded. Some veterans went on to shape the modern ski industry by founding major ski resorts (including Vail), outdoor gear companies and ski schools. Several participated on U.S. ski teams in the 1948 and 1952 Winter Olympics.

Biathlon made its debut at the Olympic Winter Games in 1960. The 2026 Winter Olympics in Milan-Cortina, Italy, features both biathlon and ski mountaineering—the latter a popular competitive sport across both Europe and the Americas.

The disciplines’ dual legacy persists, with ski troops still deployed by the United States and various countries worldwide.